[Multi-AAR] - History of men - EB part

[Fixiwee]

In preparing for battle I have always found that plans are useless, but planning is indispensable.
-Dwight D. Eisenhower

Battle of Agosa 57 BC

A history of Rome, by Prof Alfred Kennard, 2002 New York

From the Seleucid king Koilesyriakos point of view things turned out differently then he planed, when Caesar invaded his territory. He passed the Cicilian Gates in the Taurus Mountains with only some 10.000 men. Clearly he did not count to fight against Caesar. Why should he? There was no reason for Caesar to intervene. Politically the Phrygians were still part of the Seleucid Empire and Koilesyriakos only intention was to quell the rebellion. When he heard that the Romans “invaded” his Empire he was left with no option but to go to war. The main problem was that Caesars legion consisted of some 30.000 men, thrice the number he had. Koilesyriakos asked the Galatians and the Cappadocians for help and they sent mercenary captain Lagoras Babas Lydikes with some additional 12.000 troops. In all, Koilesyriakos was underpowered, but he was more experienced then Caesar. The Seleucid King had served in many battles during the Syrian wars against the powerful Ptolemaic dynasty. The Seleucid king also hoped to win the battle by the use of early Cataphracts, heavy cavalry with Parthian origin.

Commentarii de Bello Asiatico

XXV.


Caesar set up his legions some miles east of Ipsos, waiting and studying the movement of the enemy. For that he ordered Spurius Tullus, his centurion with praetorian powers to ascend the nearby mountains and guard the old Persian road that leads to the east. With the excellent weather provided the scouts would alert Caesar early enough to prepare the right measures for battle. Furthermore the Romans made good use of the helpful Phrygians who would also scout the terrain and tell them all the secrets of the nearby hills.

XXVI.

In early July local peasants sent news to Caesar that Syrian scouts were sent in the name of Koilesyriakos, while most of them were sent away, some Phrygians claimed to have killed a few of the horse riders. But this news was warning Caesar that despite the summer heat the Seleucid King was marching westwards towards the Romans. The news was sent to Phrygians and preparation for battle started. The corn supply was secured secretly at the foot of a local hill, so that in defeat it would not fall into enemy hands. Centurion Spurius Tullus was sent to scout for a good position to face the enemy army. Caesar told Tullus: “Be aware that the enemy might bring formidable cavalry, something our legions lack. Therefore it would be to our benefit to draw the Seleucid king into steep terrain, something Anatolia provides for us.”

XXVII.

Two days later it was reported to the Romans that the Seleucids were camping in the woods eastwards, several miles from Caesars camp. Either Koilesyriakos was not aware of the Roman presence or the King was trying to win more time. The Seleucids did not take the initiative to strike.

XXVIII.

The next day Caesar made the troops ready and marched eastwards to a valley along the old Persian road that the Phrygians call Agosa. Two legions were sent on the open field to bait the Seleucid king out of the nearby woods, while Caesar positioned him with another legion further up the hill, overlooking the whole Agosa valley. While the Seleucid king had strong cavalry, he lacked the necessary numbers of troops to outflank Caesar. The latter was aware of Koilesyriakos weakness, therefore he tried to draw the whole bulk into close combat. The small amount of auxiliary Phrygians was ordered to protect the flank on the lowest point of the hill.

XXIX.

The Seleucids joined the sight of battle and formed a large phalanx in the first line and impressive looking heavy cavalry on the second line. Their flanks were protected with Galatian light infantry. The Roman legionaries became insecure at the sight of the Seleucid heavy cavalry, which the Greeks called Kataphraktos. Their heavy armoured coats and the protections of the horses glittered in the hot summer sun. Caesar also acknowledged the impressing sight of the enemy force despite their numerical inferiority.

XXX.

Much to surprise of the Romans Koilesyriakos quickly changed their formation, putting his most impressive Kataphraktos in front, suddenly charging on to the Roman line. The soldiers began throwing javelins at the armoured riders, but there was little penetration and very few Seleucids fell before the first contact. The impact of heavy cavalry clashing against Roman men was severe, but the line held their position, much to the credit of the centurions who kept the moral of the soldiers high.

XXXI.

Koilesyriakos was quite surprised how well the Romans held their line and ordered to withdraw from battle and reform.

Once again they charged, but this time the much slower Phalanx formed infantry attacked with the Kataphraktos. Caesar himself had to move up to the front rows to secure the spirit of his men, for he knew that if one Cohort (Roman tactical unit) would break away, the whole army would be on the run. Thus he took danger of all equal, encouraging his men joining him in battle.

As the fighting went on the slow Seleucid Phalanx was not able to protect their mobile cavalry and the numerous Roman soldiers pinned down the enemy infantry in hand to hand combat. Koilesyriakos and his men were pushed down the hill southwards, while the northern flank was breaking away. The mercenary captain Lagoras Babas Lydikes tried to move around the southern flank and slay down more vulnerable Roman targets from the back, but soon Caesars Praetorians (tent guards/body guards) secured the rear and made Lagoras attack in vain.

Having achieved high ground Caesar and his men were in no doubt that they would eventually win the battle. At length, worn out with wounds, the Seleucids began to give away choosing to flee. Seeing his whole army turn around and run towards the valley behind them Koilesyriakos, beaten and wounded, joined his men running from the battlefield.

[Fixiwee]

Siege of Tarsos 55 BC

The Roman Empire, by Wolfgang Schreier, Bonn 2003

After the battle of Agosa Koilesyriakos fled to Syria, hoping to reform his troops. Caesar secured the newly won terrain, negotiating a treaty with the Bithynians in the north west of Anatolia.


Caesar in Anatolia winter 57 BC

In early spring 56 BC Caesar reached the city Ankyra which opened the gates to him without any resistance. He marched on to the Taurus Mountains during the summer where he defeated a small contingent of the still resisting Cappadocians under their general Zariadis at Lasana. After the battle the Zariadis made a truce with Caesar. The Cappadocians had to stop hostility against the Romans but where granted independence in return. Caesar now only faced minor opposition in Anatolia and was free to cross the Cilician Gates in autumn 56 BC. Entering Cicilia in the same year Caesar was halted due to a sudden onset of winter.


The Tarsos Campaign was very costly to Caesar

In early spring 55 BC Caesar then started to besiege the city of Tarsos and its master Phanias Labraundon Karikos. The siege lasted for 4 months and used nearly all the resources Caesar had. Furthermore he lost some 9.000 men during the siege, but eventually the Cicilians surrendered to the Romans. The Roman general speared the city since he needed every bit of resource. He now faced severe difficulties with supplies and men. The sea route was unstable because Cicilian pirates still terrorised the southern coast of Asia Minor and in the very summer Galatians and Cappadocians started to raid the supply routes by land despite the agreement after the battle of Lasana. To add even more problems, the city of Ankyra was protesting against Roman rule, demanding independence.

The rest of the year Caesar tried to reorganise his troops with little resources he got.


Caesar campaign in the East so far. The yellow cross symbolises the Battle of Agosa and the orange cross the much smaller Battle of Lasana. The Cappadocians were situated around the city of Mazaka.


Commentarii de Bello Asiatico by Marcus Julius Caesar

XL.


At the beginning of the new year [54 BC] Caesar got news that his protégée Calatinus the younger had failed to attack the Pirates main base at Side. What was set to be an all easy attack with 2 legions on a mostly undefended city, turned out to be a fortress guarded by the mercenary captain Lagoras Babas Lydikes who Caesar defeated at the battle of Agosa three years ago. The inexperienced Calatinus failed the attack loosing 17.000 Romans and allies alike. Caesar then began a council with his centurions of all companies discussing to march back to defeat the Cappadocians or to advance onto Syria. He reprimanded that “particularly for supposing that it belonged to them to inquire or conjecture, either in what direction they were marching, or with what object. That Zariadis Eupator [Cappadocian King] had most anxiously sought after the friendship of the Roman people after the battle at Lasana. Betraying the Romans, by madness or rage, should be rewarded by making war on them. And, by fortune or gods will Koilesyriakos would still be in Syria after the legions would be done with Zariadis.”

XLI.

Upon the delivery of this speech, the minds of all were changed in a surprising, manner, and the highest ardour and eagerness for prosecuting the war were engendered; and the sixth legion was the first to return thanks to him, through their military tribunes, for his having expressed this most favourable opinion of them; and assured him that they were quite ready to prosecute the war.

[Fixiwee]

Heaven cannot brook two suns, nor earth two masters.
~Alexander the Great
A new Alexander?

The Roman Empire, by Wolfgang Schreier, Bonn 2003

The campaign against the Cappadocian king Zaradis Eupator began in early 54 BC. Caesars aim was to capture Mazaka and dispose the king for his dishonesty. In March he reached the Cappadocian lands and met Zaradis in the battle of Mazaka. While Caesar still suffered from supply problems, the Cappadocians were disorganized and could not face the larger disciplined legions.


Zaradis Eupator


Caesar in the Cappadocian lands.


The Cappadocians tried to use their fast light horse riders against the Roman infantry.




Caesar was prepared, for he brought medium Greek cavalry from Tarsos.


Zaradis Eupator in meele fighting against the Romans.



After Zaradis was killed in the battle, his successor Dareios Aparnikos took on the fight from the palace inside the city. But it was too late, the Cappadocians only had some 20.000 men left and the city had a weak fortification. Caesar took Dareios Aparnikos by surprise and stormed the city during the night. Confusion among the Cappadocians hindered any form of resistance. Dareios Aparnikos committed suicide and central Anatolia was now in Caesars hands.

The campaign went surprisingly well for Caesar and his popularity among the soldiers was ever growing. Some went even so far to see a reborn Alexander the Great in him, since both successfully campaigned in the east. When some centurions started calling their leader “Caesar Magnus” the Roman general was surely flattered, but he did not wanted to be compared with Alexander. He did not tolerate the use of “Caesar Magnus” even though people in the east, friends and foes, occasionally referred to him as such from 54 BC onwards. Cappadocia came under Roman influence, not a Roman province, but rather an allied state.


Asia Minor in 54 BC.

Commentarii de Bello Asiatico
by Marcus Julius Caesar

LII.

The deeds of a man can only be measured in what one has accomplished. When Caesar was compared to Alexander he would answer that by these four years that have passed, he had conquered Asia Minor, while Alexander the Great had captured most of Asia: Egypt, Babylon, Susa and Persepolis. Yet there was no doubt among the people in Asia, including Caesars own men, that the aim of his campaign was not to conquer Asia, but to restore political balance and grant peace among the friends of the Roman people.

The Roman Empire, by Wolfgang Schreier, Bonn 2003

Meanwhile in Rome Caesar was still backed by Nero and Crassus, while the Optimates were trying to denounce Caesars campaigns fearing his ever gaining influence. When news of the battle of Mazaka came to Rome, yet another of Caesars victories, the peoples assembly, among them a young tribune called Marcus Anthony, staged an event to give Caesar an extraordinary honorary title. The Senate was ever divided between the Optimates and the Populares, but with Nero and Crassus supporting the Populares the Senate passed the vote to give Caesar an honourable name: Asiaticus. From now on Caesar was called Marcus Julius Caesar Asiaticus. That infuriated the Optimates who still wanted Caesar to be charged for illegal warfare and turmoil broke out in the Senate. The political situation in Rome started to change yet again.

[Fixiwee]

Syria awaits

The Roman Empire, by Wolfgang Schreier, Bonn 2003

After the Cappadocians had been dealt with Caesar returned to Tarsos in early 53 BC to plan his next actions. Helenos Koilesyriakos had been disposed of his throne in Syria by his brother Artemon Koilesyriakos in the winter 54 BC, being supported by a powerful military general called Aratos Sardikos.


The old Seleucid king Caesar defeated in the battle of Agosa 57 BC.


The new Seleucid king and brother of Helenos with his powerful military advisor.

Artemon showed no sign of subduing to Caesar, so the end of the campaign was not yet in sight. But first Caesar had to help his protégé Calatinus the younger. Calatinus was still trying to conquer the town of Side, the main base of operation for the Pirates. For the last years Calatinus tried to fight the infamous mercenary captain Lagoras Babas Lydikes, whom we have met in this campaign already. In 53 BC Caesar was finally able to send the necessary support, and in the summer Calatinus the younger stormed the city and killed Lydikes.


Calatinus the younger finaly defeating Lydikes.

How Lucius Marcundus accidentally brought down the Roman Republic

By Eric Damon

(Part V)

Lucius arrived at Caesars military camp in early October. He hadn’t seen his master in one and a half years, since the sculptor didn’t work closely with the military and hence did not participate in the campaign against Eupator. Lucius worked in a large art workshop, designing and sculpting busts as well as statues depicting his master, who conquered most of Asia Minor in the meantime.

The artist enjoyed quite the reputation, he was somewhat Caesars secretary to all art and cultural questions. No coin could be issued and smelted without Lucius’ approval of the image carved onto it. No mosaic could be crafted without Lucius granting his blessing. Lucius himself had mixed feelings about this, but at least he became the richest artist in the Roman Republic. The money Caesar paid for his work was tremendous.

As for Vibia, Lucius was still searching for her. When he came to Athens five years ago, he heard that Vibia ran a successful trading company in Tarsos dealing with silk coming from mysterious lands in the east. When he arrived there a few years later he learnt from a crude merchant that Vibia worked with Jewish people in Syria, but unfortunately he could not enter the lands because Caesar was still at war with the Koilesyriakos dynasty. Yet he still felt this urgent need to meet Vibia again. After all she was the only love he had ever had in all his life, even though all that was so very long ago. And that was why he had to talk to his master and friend, whom they now called Caesar Asiaticus.

The Praetorian guarding Caesars tent recognised Lucius and let him enter the generals’ huge and colourful tent (Praetorians were for the most part smarter then the usual legionary). Inside the tent Lucius found himself in something he would call a palace within a tent: A large ebony desk, exquisite furniture and fine marble busts, some of which Lucius had made himself.
Caesar was standing in front of a large map depicting Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt gazing at it with deep thoughts.
He looked older now, Lucius thought, his hair was beginning to grey. After all, Caesar was nearly 50 now. But there he still had this remarkable look of an eagle waiting to attack his enemy from above the sky. All these battles hadn’t worn him out- to the contrary - he looked fresh as ever. He recognized that Caesar definitely enjoyed his wars.

“Master” he said.
“Lucius, friend, it’s been a while”. Caesar came up and heartily shook his hands. “Have you received the letter and my present?”
“Yes I did; the peaches where delicious. I heard it’s quite difficult to get them.”
“Well, being on good terms with the Parthians is vital. They send a lot of gifts and I thought I share them with my best friends. Now tell me, what brings you to my camp? You certainly don’t want to join the military I recon?”
“Actually - yes and no. In the letter you told me that you plan to march into Syria. I want to come too, see you in battle and be there when you defeat your opponents. What a glorious statue I could produce!”
Caesar glimpsed at him, slightly turning his head.
“Lucius, you don’t have to fool me. You are still after Vibia.”
The sculptor realized that he shouldn’t have told Caesar about his feelings. But after all he introduced her to Lucius in Athens over 20 years ago.

“Well…” he replied heavily, being caught on the wrong foot.
“You are chasing the tail of a dogma here, Lucius. She is probably married to some fat and rich slob. Plus she is old. You have all the money to enjoy younger women as much as you want. Just go to the next brothel and **** a whore. That’s what we call ‘soldiers treatment for the homesick’.”
“You don’t understand. It’s is not that I’ll ride to rescue her and ask her to marry me. Not after all these years. I already have a wife. But you know what? There are certain things, certain actions in your life you have to simply have to do, even if you can’t explain it to anyone else. I just don’t want to die without having talked to her one more time. It’s not like I can open up a window in my humble home in Rome and magically talk to her when ever I want. It’s been a ******* lifetime since I last saw her.
All I want is to look at her and say: ‘I cared for you’, so I can go home, let it rest and live the rest of my life with a piece of mind. I need to do this to let go.”
Caesar smiled after Lucius gave his emotional speech, much to his surprised.
“Fine, you’re coming to Syria with me” he said, “and I hope you find what you are looking for. I really do.”

[V.T. Marvin]

Another excellent update. I realy like and admire your colourful mosaic of diferent styles and points of view. This AAR will never grow old. Keep on doing this great job. A piece of art actually.

[gamegeek2]

A. Maze. Ing!

[Fixiwee]

Another excellent update. I realy like and admire your colourful mosaic of diferent styles and points of view. This AAR will never grow old. Keep on doing this great job. A piece of art actually.

This is one of the most heartwarming feedbacks I have recieved for my work. Thank you.

I think that the semi-canonical fiction updates add a lot of colour to the rather sober historical updates. Though I find it quite tough to write a cohesive fictional story because of the quick progress in time.

A. Maze. Ing!

Tha. Nk. U. ;)

[Fixiwee]

When the wolf comes for the sheep, the dog goes to defecate.
~Estern Proverb
Invasion of Syria

The Roman Empire, by Wolfgang Schreier, Bonn 2003

While Caesar was preparing his invasion of Syria in 53 BC, the situation in Rome worsened. Turmoil and violence were the order of the day, the citizens and senators were no longer safe and the few Senate meetings were hardly attended by their members. Slowly but steady Rome was declining into chaos and anarchy with it’s climax reaching in 52 and 51 BC, as we will discuss later.

Meanwhile Caesar was prepared for his attack on the Koilesyriakos dynasty, refreshing his legions to troop strength of 35.000 including auxiliary troops.

Commentarii de Bello Asiatico
by Marcus Julius Caesar

XXIII. (Book 4)

The Roman armies entered Syria from the north trying to threaten the most important city going by the name of Antiocheia [Antioch]. This ancient city was considered to be the gateway to Syria, without it Caesar would not be able to win the war. Artemon Koilesyriakos realised this as well and ordered his general Sardikos to protect the northern fields of Antiocheia. Sardikos positioned himself on a plateau on the fields of Pagrae. When Caesar was informed of that he became aware that his swift attack on the Syrian lands had been in vane and the element of surprise was lost. Furthermore Sardikos made good use of some 10 war elephants, well equipped Phalanx and heavy cavalry Cataphracts. There was some serious doubt if the invasion of Syria wasn’t doomed from the start. Yet Caesar did not accept premature defeat and told his men that 250 years ago Alexander the Great did not fear to loose at the battle of Issus.

XXIV.

No Roman soldier had ever entered the lands of the Far East and a feeling of uncertainty could be read from their faces. While some soldiers expressed their insecurity openly, most of the men were held together by rigorous discipline and, to some extend, harsh punishment. Caesar then entered the fields of Pagrae with his men on the 14th of March 52 BC. Knowing that this might be one of the most decisive battles in his campaign he approached each single cohort, giving a personalised speech to them. This gave the men a special feeling that made them understand that each cohort was part of a greater unit and if one cohort would break, so would the other.

XXV.

Meanwhile the enemy was approaching the Roman line. The Syrians brought a mix of light infantry, Phalanx, heavy infantry, light ballistae and about ten heavy war elephants.

Sardikos gave order to charge against the Roman line with full power. Caesar realised the possibility to seize momentum by nullifying the attack with a counter charge. He gave order and immediately the legion began to run against the charging infantry.

This bold move was a risky one and could have ended with a terrible blow against the Roman cause. But luck was on Caesars side and Sardikos troops were caught by surprise inflicting some damage to the enemy line. Immediately the battle turned into hand to hand fighting, and as it turned out later, one of the bloodiest in the entire campaign. The enemy was determined to defeat the Romans and their spirit was formidable. Sardikos made sure that his Elephants ravaged through the Roman infantry and already after 20 minutes of fighting it looked like they would break through the centre of the Roman army.

Now the favour was on Sardikos side, the Elephants smashed their way through the Romans while their flanks were engaged with the Syrian Cataphracts.

Fearing that the centre of the battle would break away Caesar spoke to his legate: “Gnaeus Manius, I give you the command of the entire legions. Meanwhile I have to join the centre of the battle to ensure that the men do not lose heart against the beasts they are fighting with.”And while Caesar did join the ranks of the fifth and second cohort that was fighting against the Elephants, he did not join the fight directly, knowing that his death would mean utter defeat for the Roman people. Nevertheless his appearance ensured that the moral would not break, giving direct commands to the unit engaged.

The Roman general now realised that the soldiers equipped with the Gladius was not enough to penetrate the thick hide of the beasts. It was during the first hour of the battle when Caesar ordered Anatolian auxiliary troops to join the centre of the battle

Usually Roman and Greek historian credit the combat spirit of the simple Roman soldier, which is true for the most, but on this day the Anatolian troops saved the Romans. These Anatolian-Greek spear throwers had long javelins perfectly equipped to hurt and hunt down war elephants.

Now the momentum was shifting to Caesar again and it looked like a total disaster was turning to a complete victory. The Elephants fell or fled, and with these colossal monsters falling, the spirit of the Syrians was veining. The Roman elite infantry was now able to gain ground against the heavy Syrian cavalry inflicting heavy casualties after two hours of fighting.

The Syrians were severely decimated when Caesar got news that Sardikos had fallen to a Roman sword. The rest of the men caught the news as well and the battle ran out with many Syrians surrendering and some fleeing the battlefield. [...]

The Roman Empire, by Wolfgang Schreier, Bonn 2003

The battle of Pagrae proved to be the last and decisive battle in the Asian campaign. Caesar’s legions killed 10.000 men and some 11.000 surrendered to him. The able military general Sardikos was dead; Artemon Koilesyriakos was on the run and captured soon after. The cities Antioch, Sidon and Damascus were now in Roman hands. In the end Caesars campaign effectively destroyed the Seleucid Empire.

Caesar ensured peace with the Parthians and the Ptolemaists before returning to West-Anatolia, where he started his campaign, in the winter 52 BC. Just in time as we will see later, since a new conflict was brewing in Rome.

[Fixiwee]

How Lucius Marcundus accidentally brought down the Roman Republic

By Eric Damon

(Part VI)

He was standing on a simple road, staring at the sun. He had made it this far and still he wasn’t sure what he was trying to achieve. Lucius was standing at the edge of a small village called Natzrat. The houses here were made out of greyish and white coloured clay and people were living more simple lives. From what Lucius gathered the people of these lands believed that all life was created by a single god and that they were in some way a chosen people. But since Lucius religious believes were never very strong he didn’t judge these people called the Jews.
He passed a small hut and approached a middle aged man with a bushy beard and grey linen cloths. The artist asked in Greek, which he spoke fluently, if the man knew where he could find Vibia. The man didn’t understand him, but when Lucius spoke about Vibia he smiled and pointed on a clay building up the road. The sculptor approached the building finding himself between a carpenter and a cloth workshop. Vibia was sitting outside tailoring cloth. Lucius came closer while staring at her. She realised that she was being watched and looked up at Lucius. Then she gasped. “She looks old” the sculptor thought.

“Lucius?” she stood up and asked again: “Lucius?” Her eyes were wide open. “What in Gods name are you doing here?” Her hair was partly grey, her face looked older then she actually was and her hands had scars all over it.
“I came to see you.” Lucius replied with a voice that was trembling with fear. His hands were shaking. Suddenly he thought that coming here wasn’t a good idea at all.
“Why would you do such a stupid thing?”
“Well I was around the corner conquering the world with Caesar Asiaticus and I thought I dropped by.” He tried to grin.
Vibia didn’t laugh, she didn’t even smile. Her face was plain empty. Was this the women Lucius fell in love so long ago?
“What are you doing here?” he asked. “I heard that you run a trading company in Jerusalem. But when I got there I only found a trace leading to this small village.”
“Lucius my dear, sit down and let me offer you a glass of wine.”

When they sat down they looked at each other deeply, but without any passion. Lucius didn’t like the way this was going.
“Lucius, when you left Athens I was devastated for a while. But I moved on and sized new opportunities. I met a man called Karasthos, a Greek who dealt business with the Jewish people. I married him and we moved to Jerusalem. We had a daughter together and things seemed to be fine. One day Karasthos simply vanished, leaving a small bag of money. I soon found out that the company was in heavy debts and then things went terrible. Thugs came a few days later, plundered our home and took my daughter…” she sighted “they took my daughter and me to a slave market outside of the town where Romans and Greek clients came to barter.” She paused. “I want to spare you what happened after that but I tell you that my life wasn’t pretty at all. Once I grew too old I was put on the slave market as cheap ware and it was then when an old pious widowed Jew came up and bought me. Nathaniel freed me, brought me here and I thanked him by married him. Ever since I pray to God that my daughter is okay and I’m simply trying to live my life till I die.”
“I don’t know what to say. This wasn’t how I expected things to happen.”
“You’re now about 40 years old and you still don’t realise that you are responsible for everything you do in your life. Lucius, we could have had a happy life together”. He was impressed how well she read him. “We could have had a family, kids and a house together. But you were only twenty years old. You were a rebellious kid trying to experience the youth. And I don’t blame you. I feel no anger for the fact that you ran away from me. But I spent too many years in question until I realised that I had to let go. Maybe, after over two decades, you should too.”

Lucius just sat there, looking at her. Then she suddenly stood up and kissed him.
Lucius still looked at her.
Then he stood up, touched her hair and said: “Thank you.”

He left Vibia and never looked back.

[Fixiwee]

“Politics is the art of postponing decisions until they are no longer relevant.”
~ Henri Queuille quotes
Fall of the first Triumvirate

A history of Rome, by Prof Alfred Kennard, 2002 New York

The year 51 BC saw a new outbreak of violence and anarchy in Rome. While the Triumvirate was still intact the stability of the agreement was shifting. Nero started to realize the possibility that Crassus was using the Triumvirate for his own good. Rumours were rising that Crassus secretly supported the anarchy in Rome with large sums of gold. The motivations of Crassus were not clear, some said he tried to obtain more power, some argued that he tried to gain financial interest through the chaos.







But Crassus schemes were uncovered and the Senate realized that the Republic was in serious peril. The Optimates voted Nero as a sole consul (consule sine collega) and mandated him to safe the republic. Nero then tried to trail Crassus, failed to bring him before court and declared him a public enemy in the winter of 51 BC. Street violence and chaos was now on a climax with Crassus trying to hide within the city. In early 50 BC Crassus realized that his position was hopeless and his allies were dwindling. He fled from Rome in April, trying to reach Spain by boat. Luckily for Nero, Crassus died on the way to Spain. Some rumoured that Crassus had been murdered, but ancient historian Helenos argued that he simply died of a heart attack.
While order was restored in Rome the breaking of Crassus from the Triumvirate effectively ended the private agreement. Caesar was still in sitting in Asia, seeing Neros sole consul and the destruction of the Triumvirate as betrayal. Now in the year 50 BC the conflict between the two men was sharpening.

Helenos – The life of Claudius Nero
(written about 100 AD)

About the character of Aulus Claudius Nero.
It is a difficult task to describe Neros character. Above all he was a great general and in his youth an ambitious man. But over the years the stubborn Roman politics tired him out. His alliance with Crassus and Caesar was only temporarily. Politically he changed direction many times, most notably in 704 Ab Urbe Condita [50BC] when he was being approached by Tiberius Sergius Orata and Numerius Cornelius Dollabella and asked to save the republic from what they called the tyrant from the east. Nero had troubles finding his own political position and for a man of his prestige his stance was easily swayed. The Claudian didn’t have the charismatic way of Caesar, nor the administrative talent of Matellus.

For all the negative aspects of Neros character there is yet enough room to say good about him. Foremost Nero was a humble and honest man. He refused to use the corrupt political system in Rome to enrich himself. His house in Rome wasn’t pompous, nor did it contain any luxuries. By these actions he sought to set a standard to the ancient Roman families, much like Metellus the Censor did a century earlier.
Another aspect was that Nero was immensely popular with his soldiers. His strict but down to earth way to deal with his men was favoured throughout the ranks. Nero also didn’t like to hastily throw people into certain death. While this made him a hesitant attacker, it was well regarded by the soldiers that their lives were valued.
When the Optimates approached Nero they saw the lesser evil between him and Caesar and his military ability should be able to deal with the pro-consul of Asia.

[Fixiwee]

The quiet before the storm

The Roman Empire, by Wolfgang Schreier, Bonn 2003

After Crassus vanished from the political scene in 50 BC, Neros and the Senates last problem was Caesar in the east. Some die hard republicans wanted to see Caesar before court for his illegal warfare against the Koilesyriakos dynasty in Anatolia and Syria. Caesar on the other hand wanted to return to Rome without fearing political persecution. The only way to get political immunity was to become Consul again. But since one had to be in Rome to run for office, Caesar had no possibility to make himself a candidate. He then tried to solve the problem by trying to run for Consul in abstinent, after all he many supporters that would deal with his political campaign while he would remain in the east. The Senate disagreed due the Optimates, including the senators Orata and Dolabella. Nero sent his brother to Caesar trying to negotiate terms that would lead to a solution without bloodshed.

But Dolabella pressed hard against Nero, urging him to safe the republic from certain destruction. Nero hesitated at first but agreed after heavy debates with his new allies to bring the second legion from northern Italy to Rome for protection. When the legion crossed the Rubicon in the summer of 50 BC the die was as good as cast.


The second legion marching to Rome to protect the Senate.

This double minded strategy puzzled Caesar who had to react on either Neros brother or the armament of Rome. He decided to bring his troops to Athens in autumn; this way he showed that he was serious without declaring war against Nero and at the same time he was closer to Rome, which made dealings in politics easier. For the moment it seemed like both sides were in a deadlock situation.


Caesars fleet landing in Athens.

How Lucius Marcundus accidentally brought down the Roman Republic

By Eric Damon

(Part VII)

The villa stood before him just like it did twenty years ago. It was still inhabited, but it lost much of its former glance. Lucius was standing in Athens at the villa where he attended a party so many years ago. It was the party of Aulus Claudius Nero and it was there where he met Caesar and Vibia. Now the two statesmen were enemies and civil war was at hand yet again. But Lucius spent most of his thoughts on Vibia and the night he got to know her. Her words were still ringing in his ears and even though Lucius was a happy and humorous person, he could not get these dark thoughts out of his head.

He finally left the villa, went down the road, left Athens moving on a good while until he reached the sea. The harbour was full of Roman ships these days, after all Caesar was preparing for the possibility of war.

There he sat at the beach for a while, staring at the sea. He tried to clear his mind, but Lucius simply couldn’t think of anything at all. Suddenly he heard someone approaching him, he looked back and there was Caesar standing behind him.

“Marcus?” he said.

“Is the spot next to you still free?” the general said.

Caesar sat down. They hadn’t seen each other since Lucius left for Jerusalem.

“You want to talk about your trip?”

Lucius looked Marcus deep in the eyes and said “No.”

He sighted.

“No I think it’s better if I leave that behind me. But I’ve been thinking about life, how short it is and all the possibilities we never take. See, I came with you to see the world, to see Asia, explore places and meet new people. I’m quite rich because of my contract to you, when I’ll come back to Rome I’m going to be a made man. I could probably even buy a Villa in the Bay of Naples.”

Caesar for once, was listening deeply. He knew very well when he had to take the initiative to talk and influence people, but he also knew there was a time where one simply had to shut up and listen.

Lucius continued: “I’m just sick that everything in this life happens without me being able to influence it. So many things go wrong, and when there is this one chance to do something right I hesitated. But in the end you have to size the opportunity and do what you are supposed to do, no matter the cost. No matter what other people think of you. If you are right, then do it. No compromise.”

Marcus Julius Caesar understood that he was talking about his former love.

He stood up, patted Lucius blond hair and said: “Lucius Marcundus, you never size to amaze me. Thank you, you just helped me make a decision.”

Caesar smiled and left.

Lucius was confused, but didn’t pay much attention. A day later Caesar made his big decision that would change the Roman Republic forever. And Lucius always wondered if it was because of what he said.

[anubis88]

I would congratulate you after every post, but that would be useless... So i'll do it just this time

Great Work... I wish i had the patience to write such an AAR

[Fixiwee]

I would congratulate you after every post, but that would be useless... So i'll do it just this time

Great Work... I wish i had the patience to write such an AAR

Thank you. I'm still wondering after one year of doing this AAR how the hell I manage to have the patience to work on it. I normaly give up projects like that pretty fast.

Btw, next update is nearly ready.

[Fixiwee]

"Let the die be tossed"
(Historic) Gaius Julius Caesar quoting Menander, reported by Plutarch
Alea iacta est

The Roman Empire, by Wolfgang Schreier, Bonn 2003

In the winter of 50 BC Nero still had not decided how to deal with his former ally. Either try to work out a peaceful solution by a joint disarmament or declare him a public enemy of the state. But Nero was pushed by the die-hard republicans to act openly against Caesar Asiaticus. In the first days of January 49 BC the Roman Senate declared the state of emergency, putting the complete leadership to the consuls, which effectively meant Nero. Caesar was commanded to disarm and return to Rome.
A few days later Caesar was presented the news. He withdrew in solitude for a few hours pondering his options. Declaring that he was hurt in his “dignitas” he told his legions that he would march against Rome. After fighting for nearly a decade in Asia the Roman soldiers and Caesar were bound by a tight band of military friendship unlike any other. Thus they were willing to march with Caesar, even if that meant the biggest constitutional crime they could commit.

On the 27th of January Caesar landed with two legions in Cannae in Italy. The great civil war had begun. Nero was caught by surprised at the speed and amount of troops Caesar landed close to Rome. This military invasion was a logistical masterstroke of it’s time and “landing at Cannae” had become a proverb for a point of no return.


Caesar (on the right) landing in Cannae, starting the great civil war

At the same time when Caesar landed in Italy, grim news came from the east. The Parthians had started to invade the Roman province of Syria, which started the Roman-Parthian wars, which would last for centuries. But we will discuss this conflict in another chapter of this book.

Meanwhile Caesar immediately started to move his troops to Rome and the speed of the attacker was something Nero had not counted on. Against heavy protests by the Senate he decided to take his 2nd legion and flee to Gaul, where he still had many allies. While Dolabella was protesting that they presented Rome as a gift to Caesar, Nero was fully aware that Caesars legions were better trained and experienced, making it unlikely to defeat him on Italian ground. Nero had to find allies in Gaul and potentially in Spain.


An uncertain attacker.

On the the 6th of February Caesar entered Rome without meeting any resistance. Most of the Senate had flown to Gaul, leaving only a few Senators inside the city. But when Caesar started to deal in politics, many were surprised that he didn’t do the same like Silanus. There were no prosecution, no violence and no lex Iunus de proscreptione like in 79 BC. Caesar immediately let the Senate appoint him with dictatorial powers, he declared snap elections and got elected as consul. A day later he gave up his position as dictator. Caesar had achieved without shedding blood what the civil war was all about in the first place.


Caesar in Rome. It was the first time after 10 years he had entered the city.

For the rest of the year the new consul remained in Italy and reorganised his troops. Nero in the meantime reached Massalia in southern Gaul, preparing for the inevitable battle.
In early 48 BC Caesar finally left Rome with his legions to pursue Nero. In the meantime Nero withdrew further to the north to the Aedui tribe, hoping to gain help from his allies he made in 66 BC during his campaign against the Arverni. Caesar had now reached Massalia and for assisting Nero he stripped its status as an independed allied state which it had since 235 BC. The city was now part of the Roman province Galia Narbonensis.


Nero(left) withdrawing from Massalia, Caesar (right) chasing after him.


Massalia looses its independence.

For the moment it seemed that Neros tactic of withdrawing from Italy was actually paying off. The Aedui accepted the call for help, and all in all Nero could muster nearly 60.000 men, which was twice as much Caesar had.


Deadlock. Nero fortifies his position near Gergovia.

This put Caesar in a difficult position, as the governors in Spain declared their support for Nero. If Caesar would attack Nero now his chances of wining were not the best, if he would wait for more reinforcements the troops from Spain might reach Nero and he would be heavily outnumbered and returning to Rome would undermine Caesars authority. Once again Caesar had to make a tough decision.

[Roka]

finally managed to catch up with this, excellent work as usual

[Fixiwee]

finally managed to catch up with this, excellent work as usual

Thank you. Glad you like it. :)

[Fixiwee]

How Lucius Marcundus accidentally brought down the Roman Republic

By Eric Damon

(Part VIII)

„Gaul looks so different compared to Italy“ Lucius thought, riding slowly on a horse through a newly built Roman road through a hillside terrain in southern Gaul. He was now rich enough have his own guide, a Gaul who spoke Latin and Celtic, and eight Roman veterans serving as his body guards. The whole group on horses included a large carriage, carrying something hidden from the public eye.
Later that day the group reached a few Roman soldiers working on the new stretch of the road. The centurion, a man called Sura, approached them and asked them where they were heading.
With a strong voice of determination Lucius answered: “The camp of Aulus Claudius Nero. I’m here on private business.”
The centurion pointed out the way and at dawn they reached the tremendous large camp that contained Nero, the Roman Senate, two Roman legions and a large army of Gauls. But Lucius was unimpressed since he was used to such a sight. He had seen countless soldiers, countless battles and he was tired of these things. Especially if it was Romans killing Romans.

The Praefectus Castrorum welcomed the Roman sculptor who had to state his business with Nero. Afterwards he was admitted to a small house were important visitors would wait until Nero could see them. It was already close to midnight when a senior officer approached Lucius in his room and told him that the general was ready to see him. The senior officer escorted him to a large building that already stood here before Nero and the Senate encamped here.

The senior officer saluted his master with the Roman Salute and announced the visitor.
Nero was sitting relaxed on a bench with simple cloths and a glass wine in his hand.
“I’m surprised to see you here. After all you are one of Caesars clients and therefore my enemy. But my officers told me that you had some urgent offer with me that help me could end the civil war.”
“Senator Nero…”
“No need for formalities. Sit down and drink with me.”
“With great pleasure. I’m thirsty after all this travelling.”
Lucius grabbed a glass of wine and started to drink.
“These southern Gaul wines aren’t too bad, don’t you think?”
Lucius looked up and mustered Nero. He couldn’t say what it was, but Nero somewhat lost his glance since the last time they met. But they said that Nero had become a simple man who slowed down and was unfortunate enough to be caught between Caesar and the Senate.
“Yeah, they are pretty good, I guess.”
“So why are you here?”
“I have to repent for my mistakes I committed against the Roman people.”
Nero gasped.
“Is this some religious nonsense? If so, I have no time for it.”
“No. It’s not like that.”
“So?”
Lucius took a deep breath.

“I think I am the reason that the Republic is falling apart.”
Nero didn’t say anything.
“I talked to Caesar about my life, my mistakes and everything. I said that I should have acted when I had the chance to. And I think my speech about these things made him make his own decision to invade Italy.”
“You are ridiculous, are you aware of that?”
“Listen to me” Lucius said with a strong voice. “I told him to act, because one cannot hesitate about important decision. That was the day when Caesar received the news ordering him to disarm and return to Italy. Yet I was talking about love and life, not about bringing down thee Roman Republic.”
“I find that hard to believe. Yet I am interested how you want to atone for what you said you did.”
“I brought all my money that I made during Caesars campaigns. Well not all of it, but a lot. You can have it. I made the money working for a tyrant. And I don’t support that, I am a firm believer in the Republic.”
“Well to be honest, I think you are delusional. But I will not say no to any money if you mean to save the republic.”
Nero had the reputation to be an honest man.

Suddenly a soldier entered the Room.
“Senator Nero, I have urgent news”
“Speak.”
“Caesar started marching against your position. He will reach us in two days.”

Lucius realised that he was more or less caught in the spot. His master was about to attack Nero and the Senate.

[Fixiwee]

Battles of history with Patrick Goodwin

The Battle of Cabalum 48 BC

[The scene is a hastily built Roman military camp. It is night, yet a small strip of dawn can be seen behind the mountains. The soldiers are on their feet, preparing for war, yet they make no sound at all and furthermore everyone knows exactly what to do. Marcus Julius Caesar Asiaticus is standing in the open field by a small fire with a group of centurions.]



Caesar: My good officers. We have met here to discuss this early and merry morning-party we will have with Nero today. As you are well aware we are outnumbered by about one to two. Yet there are three important factors that will ensure victory. But you have to listen closely to what I say.

[The scene pauses]

Goodwin: The year is 48 BC and the Great Civil War is at its climax. A year ago Caesar had landed at Cannae, Italy, and started the war against the Senate and Aulus Claudius Nero, his former ally. In the last civil war Calatinus also landed in Italy and his enemy, Silanus, marched out to defeat him at the Battle of Aeclanum in 79 BC. Yet this time the man in charge of the Senate, Nero, avoided a fight and retreated to Gaul to reform his army and gather new allies. Nero knew that his troops were mostly inexperienced soldiers just recruited recently. Caesars troops on the other hand were battle hardened men who had conquered Anatolia and Syria a few years ago.
The Senate frowned at the idea of giving Caesar Rome without a fight, yet Neros idea seemed to pay off. In early 48 BC Nero had convinced the Gaulish Aedui tribe to join his fight. The reason for that was because decade earlier Nero had helped the Aedui with a struggle against other tribes in Gaul.
As for Caesar his time was running out. He had to strike quickly despite his disadvantage in numbers, since more and more legions were joining Neros cause. So Caesar decided to strike at Nero quick and ruthless, trying to snap victory before Nero had enough men.

[Back at the Caesars camp fire.]

Caesar: Our most obvious advantage is that we have seen our deal of war. We are a tight band which knows how to function in battle. Despite that, our enemy still fields more enough manpower. The plan is to attack as early as possible, to catch Nero of guard. It is possible that he might not be able to reach his Gaul allies and it may take some time until they reach the fight.
Yet the most important observation is that we will fight along a wide stretched front. It is impossible for me to direct the whole battle. So I decided that in this battle I’ll give you, the centurions, a free hand. If you are able to penetrate the line somewhere you are allowed to act on your own judgment. Pushing hard and swift will change the chances to our advantage.
Military Legate: I thought we were going to a festival with Nero?
[Laughter among the officers.]

Caesar (chuckling): In that case, just make sure you party hard.

Goodwin: Caesars plan is a daring one. He knows he has to make a leap of faith if he plans to stand a chance of winning against all odd.
On Neros side the attack is viewed as the perfect opportunity to defeat Caesar and put the Roman Republic back in the hands of the Senate. But Nero is not stupid. He knows that Caesar is the most cunning foe he has to face and even with a superior amount of troops his chances of winning is about fifty-fifty at best. His troops are inexperienced and the Gauls are looked at with mistrust by his own officers. All in all Neros vast army does not function that well like Caesars smaller and mobile army.

[Inside of Neros house. Nero is standing on a map studying the era. He has not slept and looks tired.]



Nero [speaking to himself]: What are you up to Marcus? What the bloody hell are you up to? Will you try to drive a wedge through our combined army? Or will you try the impossible and outflank one side of the battle? One thing is for sure. My legions are the heart of the army, and this is where the hammer will fall hardest.

Goodwin: Nero has a plan of his own. He wants to counter Caesars advance by putting his best men on the front and break through the main line, exploit the gap and try to kill Caesar. Without him his troops would soon fall.

[A soldier enters the house and gives Nero the news that Caesar is already marching on their position.]

Nero: Damn it. He is trying to sneak upon us and make a surprise attack. Get the men ready, sent a messenger to the Aedui king that he should join us in battle as fast as he can. Move!

Goodwin: The battle is about to begin. At the earliest morning light Caesars troops take position as Neros troops pour out of the camp.



Caesar had brought archers from Syria to the battle. The Romans traditionally did not rely on archers, but in his Syrian campaign he had learnt to make good use of them.





He had also trained his own men in the use of bows. This was something revolutionary to the Roman army.
Yet his most important weapon was the use of Praetorians. These cohorts were used by generals before Caesar as body guards. Caesar was the first one to increase their numbers as hand picked elite soldiers. In this battle they would play an essential role for their first time.





Neros troops are assembled and marching to their position.





Caesars troops take position as well.



Yet there is some bad news from his Aedui allies. While they are marching to battle they are lagging a bit behind. Caesar plan to attack as early as possible seems to work.



Yet their support is important to Nero. While the Gauls had been portrayed as uncivilized brute barbarians through history they actually had better weapons and equipment and were reliable warriors. They added a much needed punch to Neros army.





On the map we see the general plan of the battle. Caesars army is coloured in red, with his praetorian cavalry marked with the X on the right flank.
Neros army (purple) is trying to punch through one line directly, while the Gauls (orange) harass the left flank.

Caesar [ordering the Praetorians]: Secure the left flank. By Mars, let no Barbarian get through.



Caesar puts his Praetorian Infantry on the left of the battle. They are the main defence against the Aedui. The Praetorian cavalry is put on the right.

[The Syrian archers give order in a foreign language. They aim…]



[…and shoot]





Both armies get close. Nero is still waiting for his allies from Gaul. But by harassing the enemy with Archers, Caesar draws Nero into battle who simply can’t loose too many men in a reign of arrows.



Nero[talking to his marching men]: Keep up with your man in front, mark your target and take heart. [Now shouting] Remember you fight against a tyrant who wants to destroy our sacred Republic!



Caesar[shouting too]: Get these traitors who call us criminals. For the glory of Rome!



The battle of Cabalum has begun. Once again Romans fight against Romans in a conflict that had been going on for decades.

[The fighting is fierce and both sides show an expression of hatred and anger towards another. There is no remorse; who ever stumbles or looses their defence gets stabbed. The first line takes the hardest blow; the second one already gets ready to fight. The third one holds their shield up to protect the first two lines from arrows.]



Caesar: Praetorians! Now is the time. Make a fast dash to the right. Don’t stop for any fight and charge into the back of Neros army. Try to take down Nero himself.



The battle is already going for an hour and both commanders run about giving orders. It is one of the fiercest fought battles in the history of Rome.



Caesars Praetorian Cavalry manages to exploit a gap in the right flank marked by the Xs. While some of his infantry manages to break through, Neros plan to pierce the enemy line of defence fails. Yet Nero still has twice the amount of troops.





Now Caesar has his most devastating unit, the Praetorian cavalry, just where he needs them – in the back of Neros army. The plan is to stage a large attack on the entire right side of the hostile army.



Praetorian Officer: Men, this is it. Let’s not waste too much time and just kill some of these swine. For Rome, for Mars!
[Pauses]
Charge!







At the third hour of the battle the cavalry charge falls into the whole right side of Neros army. Nero himself gets caught in the spot. He is trapped.

Nero: No! It should not end like this. Not now.

[A Praetorian rides up to Nero, getting past his own body guard and pinches his spear in the chest of the general. He mumbles a few words in utter pain and falls down from his horse. Instantly a horn is blown by the Praetorians signalising their break through.]

[Fixiwee]

Nero has fallen. This event was seen by his own soldiers on the entire battlefield. For them it seems that all is lost.





Yet the battle on the left flank is still going on. The Barbarians don’t loose their will to fight with Neros demise.





They try to break through their line with Chariots, but Caesar placed strong elite troops on the left of his army who quickly deal with them.





Caesar [sweaty and out of breath]: This is starting to look good. By the gods, I can’t believe it. Push harder, take em’ down.

More and more of Neros soldiers start to turn tail and run. After four hours of fighting the odds are swinging for Caesar.



With the Roman enemy is fleeing the battle field, Caesar puts his whole army on the left flank to deal with the Barbarians.



Here Caesar fails to encircle his enemy, for the Gauls are wise enough to stay in the woods.



[The Aedui noblemen fight professionally and manage to kill many Roman soldiers. A centurion cries for reinforcements.]

Quite late the Aedui put their elite force on the field, trying to turn the battle to their favour. And what Caesars men saw was beyond anything they had encountered in their previous campaigns.



Naked Aedui infantry - these fierce warriors are drugged and in frenzy, fighting like wild madmen. They fight with such determination that some of Caesars men loose their nerve and flee.





The Aedui chieftain, King Barrivendos, is slain. More and more Aedui fall, slain by Caesars troops.



[The Roman soldiers fighting the naked infantry catch their breath again and under heavy casualties slowly take down these warriors one by one.]



After six hours of fighting the battle is very much in Caesars favour. While the Gauls still hold their position, there doesn’t seem a possibility to change the course of battle.



Still the Aedui fight and the seemingly endless battle goes on.



[Most of the Romans have to fight standing on dead bodies; some of the soldiers have to step on the dead horses to get to their enemy. On both sides some warriors vomit over the disgusting scene.]





Yet after seven hours of fighting the rest of the Aedui army looses their will to fight and flees. Caesars victory is secured. Yet the battlefield is full of dead bodies.









It is already getting dark when the last pockets of resistance had been cleared by Caesars troops.



Caesar had attacked his enemy against all rules of warfare. And yet he had won. It was his most important victory in his life. With his 30.000 soldiers he had killed over 50.000 men. Yet his victory was not flawless. Nero and his allies had inflicted 15.000 casualties, that means half of Caesars troops.



The battle of Cabalum was on of the most important battles of antiquity – and one of the bloodiest of all.



The Battle of Cabalum has been seen as the moment where the Roman Republic transformed into the Roman Monarchy. Caesars name would even become the title for later monarchs. He was the sole victor; his nemesis Nero and the Roman Republic were utterly defeated, despite the strange path history would take after the battle. Cabalum was the most impressive event, because of the two Titans who faced each other – former allies and friends. This clash of the Titans would remain as a legendary battle through the entire history.

[G. Septimus]

This is the most amazing AAR I ever read....

[Fixiwee]

This is the most amazing AAR I ever read....

Yaaaay Thank you! :)

[Fixiwee]

How Lucius Marcundus accidentally brought down the Roman Republic

By Eric Damon

(Part IX)

„I just want back to my family and Tiberius. I’m sick of all this Civil War ****. I want to laugh again.”
Lucius was carried by two rough Praetorians to the same house where Nero had accepted his offer of money. Only that by now the villa was in the hands of his former master, Marcus Julius Caesar Asiaticus.
Of course it wasn’t a comforting situation that his master found out that one of his most important clients and friends was found in the camp of his arch enemy. Lucius thought that this was the end of his life: A life as an artist and a traitor.

“Bring him in.”
Lucius could hear Caesar from inside.
And there he stood: the victor of Cabalum. He had defeated them all: The Senate, Dollabella, Orata and of course Nero.
“Am I surprised to see you. Good thing you are well.”
Lucius thought that he was even cynical after his greatest victory.

“Now what Marcus?” Lucius asked with disgust.
“What do you mean Lucius?”
“I guess you’ll crucify me for betrayal. Fine! Just leave my family alone.”
Caesar smiled, yet he somehow looked empty and hollow.

“My dear Lucius, how could I do such a thing? I’m no monster.”
“But I am a traitor. I helped your enemy Aulus Claudius Nero.”
“You forget that he was also my friend. And as for you; you were a traitor. We had our differences and I forgive you. You are free as of now.”

Lucius couldn’t believe it.

“Why are you looking at me like that?” Caesar said.

The artist wasn’t sure if he really misjudged Caesar or if he was became presumptuous. Lucius opened his mouth.

“I… I Just want to see my wife again.”
“And you shall. You can go at any time. I hold no grudge against you. You just did what you thought best, such as I did. Who am I to judge or strike you down?”
“You marched on Rome and stroke all down who stood before you.”
“That is not entirely true and you know that. The Senate forced me to act.”
Suddenly Caesars voice was strong and full of power.
“I have my dignity. And you made me realise that.”

Lucius paused. So it was true. It was all his fault.

“So I made you a tyrant. Oh the irony…”

“Lucius Marcundus. I am no tyrant. I want to save the Republic from certain death. Learn the history. I am just trying to stop what Gaius Cotta and Silanus started so many years ago.”
His voice became normal again.
“Please believe me. I am no tyrant. But the Roman people need reforms or this civil war will go on and on.”

Lucius sighted. He could not win against an eloquent man like Caesar.

“I should have stayed with my lovely wife. I shouldn’t have run away into Asia with you.”
“Lucius, I am glad you did. I enjoyed your company and I always will. Go to Rome, love your wife and watch your children become adults. And when I return you can still work for me, just like you did all these years.”

Marcus stepped towards Lucius and embraced him. He then whispered in his ear: “And we will have a large festival with us two old men running around naked – just like we did in your youth.”

Lucius smiled. He wasn’t sure what he should do. He disliked the men infront him yet somehow he was completely in the hands of Caesar.

“Thank you.” he mumbled.

Lucius turned around and went home to Rome.

[Fixiwee]

War gives the right of the conquerors to impose any conditions they please upon the vanquished.
Gaius Julius Caesar

War in Northern Gaul

The Roman Empire, by Wolfgang Schreier, Bonn 2003

After the Battle of Cabalum, Caesar started to pardon the surrendering Senators. Among them were Dollabella, the leader of the Senatorial faction, Orata the most influential Senator, the young Brutus and Lepidus. Clementia Caesaris (forgiveness of Caesar) became the effective catchphrase.
Of course all this had a catch too: First of all Caesar had to undermine the rhetoric of his enemies; as the attacker on the Roman Republic he was in a difficult position. Many refrained of resisting him from now own, which saved a lot of energy. On the other hand there was a subtle form of arrogance in Caesars actions: One who is mild also signalises that he could be cruel. It is in his hand to deal with his antagonists, which effectively makes on a tyrant after all.

Caesars former enemies returned to Spain and Italy, while he stayed in Gaul preparing a punitive expedition against the Aedui. He knew his campaign had to be swift and decisive, after all he still had a lot of work to do in Rome.
After Neros war in Southern Gaul a decade earlier, the Aedui had the leading position of the remaining Gauls. Their king Vertiscos was in a union with Ligones, and the rest of Gaul was tributary to the Aedui king.

Caesars campaign started in early 47 BC with a surprise attack on the Aedui town Avaricum. He then forced the Aedui king into battle in April at the Battle of Decetia.




Roman troops marching into battle.




While the Roman troops have no trouble defeating the Gauls in open fields...


...some stiff resistance is encountered in the woods. These small pockets get defeated nontheless.


Gaul in 47 BC. The Venetii still resist Roman ocupation, which will serve as the basis for the later Asterix comics.

With the defeat of the Aedui at Decetia most of Gaul submitted to Caesar. In winter 47 Caesar reached the river Seine where he received the lords of the Aulerici tribe. The only Gauls who still resisted Caesar where the Venetii, a small tribe in modern Brittany. Caesar had pressing issues to deal in Rome, so he conveniently left his second in command, Sextus Fabius Ambustus to deal with the remaining forces in Gaul. In early spring 46 Caesar returned to Rome again. Nevertheless it took Ambustus until 44 BC to finally defeat the Venetii.


Ambustus faced strong Ventii troops in 44 BC at the Battle of Radones.




Venti infantry trying to break through Roman lines.


Fighting was tough and the battle lasted for several hours.


But Ambustus won an important victory for Caesar: All Gaul was now in Roman hands.

Caesar celebrated his second triumph in 46 BC and announced that the civil war was over. In the last decade Caesar had spent hardly any time in Rome, now he sought to bring his power to a political basis. In his work many contemporaries saw the reforming energy of a great statesman, who drew the consequences of the limping Roman state.
The most important change was to the Senate itself. The numbers of Senators was increased to 900. Some Greeks and even a few Syrians and Gauls were among them. The Quaestors were increased to 40, the plebeian Aediles to four and Praetors to 16. The pro-consulship was increased from one to two years. The lex Iulia municipalis uniformly organised all towns in Italy, all Itialians north to the river Po received Roman citizenship.
The most long ranging reform was the changes to the calendar: the year now had 365 and a quarter days. This Julian calendar was very accurate and was only slightly altered during Medieval times.
Caesar also initiated many new colonies: five in Africa, including the rebirth of a (Roman) Carthage, three in Greece, in Anatolia eight and thirteen in Spain, increasing Romanisation in Spain.

Caesar gave himself new political powers. Starting from 46 BC he became Dictator for ten years. He was now the only one to command the armies and he could declare war to anyone without having to ask the Senate for approval. Furthermore he also had the power to appoint the magistrates of his choice. He also had the sacrosanctias of a tribune and the praefectura morum; the watch over morals and therefore the possibility to remove Senators from the Senate.

He achieved multiple honours: pater patriae – father of the fatherland and liberator – the liberator who protected Rome from all dangers. The title imperator was incorporated to his name and he could always wear the cloths of the triumphant.
Yet Caesar avoided any divinisation, fearing that it could be too much. When some Senators offered him the title deo invicto (the invincible god) he refused it. Also he avoided anything that would put him close to the old monarchical title rex. When Marc Antony offered Caesar the diadem of the Hellenistic Kings he infuriately refused – but not without being flattered somehow.
Nevertheless Caesar assigned many statues to be built all over the Roman Republic, among them one in the Temple of Jupiter and one on the Forum Romanum.

Some resistance started to form against Caesar, but his politics were clever enough not to overstretch the patience of his opposition.
After the first years of reforming the Roman state, Caesar started to prepare for his next campaign against the Parthians. In mid 44 BC he left for Asia again.

[Fixiwee]

I came, I saw, I won.
Gaius Julius Caesar

Caesars return to the East

A history of Rome, by Prof Alfred Kennard, 2002 New York

The first Roman-Parthian war started in 49 BC shortly after Caesar travelled to Greece to deal with the Nero and the Senate. He left his protégée Calatinus the younger in command of the Syrian province. Calatinus was an able man with good understanding of military matters. Yet he can’t be compared to his father or Caesar in that matter.
Unfortunately we don’t have any Parthian sources for the reason of their attack. Greek historian Helenos tells us that the war was a pre-emptive attack on the Roman province Syria. He tells us that the Parthian king wanted to throw the Romans out of Asia as long as they were still weak there. The Parthian commander in chief called Pishdad waited until Caesar left Asia and immediately attacked thereafter, knowing the Roman civil war would weaken their military strength. In summer 49 it came to the Battle at the Daras woods.


The battle was one of the first where the Romans faced larger masses of Cataphracts.


Parthian infantry advancing.


Calatinus was smart enough to use the woods against the strong Parthian cavalry.


Fighting close combat.


The Romans also held high ground against the overwhelming Parthian forces.




Eventually the Parthians ran out of troops against the well positioned Roman forces.

The first clash of troops in Syria resulted in a surprising victory for Calatinus. But his victory was not complete, Pishdad survived and with him a great deal of his army. The loss at Daras triggered a revolt in the Parthian town of Edessa against Parthian rule and for the moment the Romans had time to rebuild their forces.

In 47 BC Calatinus tried to move into Edessa at the Parthian border, but was halted by Pishdad. It didn’t come to a military battle at first, yet the Parthian general successfully halted the advance of the Romans.

In early November 47 BC Pishdad finally crushed the rebellion and was able to ambush Calatinus at the Battle of Batanae and inflict heavy casualties that forced him to move back to his province. Nevertheless the Parthians were not able to use their victory to march into Syria.

So far both sides were exhausted. Calatinus tried to rebuild his troops after his loss and Pishdad was forced to station troops in Edessa to prevent another rebellion. Good news came from Rome, after Caesar had ended his civil war he announced that he would start a campaign against the Parthians.

Caesar then landed with his troops at Pergamon in Anatolia in early 43 BC. There was some quarrel with the king of Nikaia and Caesar decided to attack the small state and incorporate into the Roman Empire.


The East in 43 BC.


Caesar attacking the independend Nikaia (Nicaea).

The campaign took the whole year, which wasn’t the way Caesar had planned it. In the meanwhile Pishdad tried to win a decisive victory over the Romans before Caesar would arrive with his troops. The Parthian general attacked Antioch directly and forced Calatinus into a battle.


Parthians pushing against Antioch again.


Once again Calatinus lured the Parthians into the woods, limiting their mobility.





Ancient historian Helenos tells us that Pishdad even brought troops from the far east India.


The mighty Cataphracts.


The Parthians brought more troops to the battlefield.


Fighting against strong Parthian cavalry.


Calatinus the younger once again routed the enemy army but without being able to destroying it.

Once again Pishdad was not able to break the deadlock in Syria and Calatinus won important time for Caesar.

In winter 43 BC Caesar had finally captured Nikaia. At the same time an envoy from the Egyptian king Ladamos Ptolemiates arrived at Caesar asking for help in the civil war against his brother. Caesar knew that this was a good opportunity to get more influence over Egypt and agreed. He sent his master of horses, Marc Anthony to Egypt to watch over the new alliance.



Caesar knew that he needed all his troops for the upcoming campaigns. Instead of marching to Syria Caesar decided to wage a campaign against the Pontic king, who had been siding with the Parthians in the last two decades. If he could defeat them, Caesar would have his hands free to deal with the Parthians.

In 42 BC Caesar launched a surprise attack against Pontus and overwhelmed the unprepared enemy at the first battle of Amaseia. The battle was a sneak attack on the enemy army camp during the night. The enemy was completely destroyed while Caesar had only suffered minor casualties. But the Pontic king Menophilos Dionysos was not defeated. He gathered his last troops from the eastern part of his kingdom and tried to face Caesar at the second battle of Amaseia.



Caesar is said to have visited the Royal pontic tombs.


Seasoned veteran against a green general.




Caesars troops were superior in numbers, equipment and experience.




Closing in.


Throwing...


..and fighting.


Caesar had no problem to outflank the young unexperienced king.


The troops are encircled.


In such a situation even the veteran soldiers became weary and began to loose their moral.


Caesar pushed from all sides.


With the their king dead...


the pontic army looses their will to fight.


Caesar utterly destroyed the pontic royal army. There was no one left to fight against Caesar anymore.

With the defeat of the Pontic army and the king dead the rest of the Pontic kingdom surrendered to Caesar. This campaign went on so smoothly that Caesar is said to have stated: “I came, I saw and I won”.

Finally in 41 BC Caesar had his hands free to march against the Parthians.

[anubis88]

Haha... This continues to be epic

[Fixiwee]

Of all the wonders that I yet have heard,

It seems to me most strange that men should fear;
Seeing that death, a necessary end,
Will come when it will come.

Julius Caesar in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, 2.2.34.

A necessary end

The Roman Empire, by Wolfgang Schreier, Bonn 2003

Caesar travelled from Pontus to Syria by the land route, passing the Cicilian gate in early 41 BC. While he moved with his troops Pishdad managed to drive Calatinus out of Antioch. While loosing the important city, Calatinus managed to fully preserve his legions, withdrawing to Tarsos and waiting for Caesars arrival. In April 41 BC Calatinus and Caesar met for the first time in nearly ten years. Caesar took over his troops, sent him home to Rome with the instructions to have him celebrate a triumph.

Calatinus the younger handing over command to Caesar.

Pishdad, an able general

The Roman general continued to march against Antioch trying to face Pishdad in battle. The Parthian commander became cautious, knowing that the enemy he faced was much more able then Calatinus.

Pisdhads army withdrawing from battle. The Romans refered to the Parthians as 'girls pretending to fight'.

With Pishdads withdrawal in August 41 BC Antioch was back in Roman hands again, but was severely damaged by battle and plundering. Caesar immediately started to march to the Parthian border where he spent the winter. His plan was to finally invade the Parthian lands and defeat Pishdad.

Caesar invading Parthia.

On the 2nd of May 40 BC it finally came to the Battle of Birtha: Caesar was facing Pishdad

The Battle of Birthia.

Caesar, being in unknown terrain, had unfavourable starting position.

The Romans imidiatley started moving upwards to get into a better position.


The battle itself started to be tense and fighting took place for several hours.

Roman soldiers bracing for the impact of the infamous Cataphracts...

...and the line holds.

With Pishdads main army engaged in close battle Caesar still had enough reserves to manouver at his will.

Once again the Macedonian cavallry encircled the enemy and charged into the back.

Pishdad was killed after several hours of fighting. That tipped the battle in favour of the Romans...

...since most Parthians lost their will to fight.

Caesar ordered to chase the Parthian army and destroy it as a whole.

And his plan worked, Pishdads army was utterly vanquished.

The Parthians were defeated and the road to Edessa was open. Immediately after the battle Caesars officers approached the victor and offered him the title ‘Magnus – the great’ and the title Basileus (king) referring to Alexander the Great. Caesar refused again – much like he did during his Anatolian and Syrian campaign. But something changed this time; Caesar actually hesitated accepting the title of Alexander the Great. He still wanted to defeat the Parthians, but his plan was to return to Alexandria after his campaign and visit the grave of the famous Greek. His intentions are unclear, but it seems that Caesar was trying to get on the same level as Alexander.

Helenos – The life of Julius Caesar

(written about 100 AD)

After his great victory the Parthian king Phraates immediately sent an envoy to Caesar Asiaticus to limit the damage at hand. Phraates knew that with Pishdad gone the whole western part of his empire was defenceless.

For the moment Caesar did not think about making peace with the Parthians. He left his army and rode with a small envoy to Edessa. When he entered the city on the 18th of June 714 ab urbe Condita [40BC] everyone was celebrating their liberator. A tremendous parade was staged and Caesar was greeted like the Hellenic kings of old. He prepared a much anticipated speech to the population: “My dear citizens of Edessa, friends to the Roman people, I have come to liberate this jewel of a city from the Parthian tyranny. Phraates is helpless and there is nothing standing in your way of freedom. Just as we Romans protect our liberty and freedom, so do the citizens of this city. And you shall have it.”

Caesar remained two weeks in Edessa, planning his future campaign against the rest of the Parthian empire. He returned to his army on the 7th of July preparing to march into Edessa with his legions peacefully.

Everything seemed to go well for Caesar Asiaticus, when he suddenly fell ill on the 9th of July. Confide to bed he ordered his master of horses and second in command Marcus Antonius to gather the best doctors around. A day later a group of Greeks were studying and treating the illness of the great general. It seemed that Caesar had inhaled bad air during his travels, which was causing sever fever.

The doctors tried to treat their patient with leeches, bleeding and bathing him in cold water. But Caesars condition did not improve, his fever made it nearly impossible to walk or talk. Yet Caesar battled hard against his illness and like in battle, did not accept defeat. On the 4th day Caesar realised that he might loose the battle against his own body. On the morning of the 14th of July his body was devastated and his face pale his time drew close. Caesar mumbled his last words with what power he had: ‘It should have not ended like this’. Not even an hour later Marcus Julius Caesar Asiaticus drew his last breath and passed on to the after life.

The Roman Empire, by Wolfgang Schreier, Bonn 2003

Ceasars unexpected death could not have come at a worse time. His campaign was close to be a stunning victory over the Parthians, yet it would turn out to be a return to the status quo. His reforms of the Roman state were far from complete and that would lead Rome to another civil war.

Yet the sheer power and determination of Caesar had captured the minds of following generations. No man had changed the constitution the way like he did; no man pursued the path to supreme power like Caesar and hardly any Roman general was as successful as he was. Starting with his successor the name alone was a title of power and honour. That would even go so far that later emperors would use his name; like the German Kaiser and the Russian Tsar.

Caesar at his death.

[Fixiwee]

Moriendum est - It is time to die

Augustus (then Octavian)

Transcript of the college class lecture „The Roman Empire“ in 2003, University of Minnesota, USA

[Prof. Saramotti speaking]:
Hello for today’s lecture. We will discuss the rise of Augustus to supreme power today. If there are no questions about the last few lectures we will start right ahead since we have a lot to talk about.

Last week we closed with the sudden death of Caesar during his Parthian campaign. His second in command, Marc Anthony immediately seized control over Caesars troops. With the death of the supreme ruler of the Roman Republic the political situation had become unstable once again and Anthony feared that the republican forces might return to the pre-caesarean constitution re-establishing the old republic. Anthony could not continue his campaign and ended the war with a return to the status quo in August 40 BC after some disputes with the Parthians.
Meanwhile the news of Caesars death had reached Rome. Turmoil broke out and rumours spread that Calatinus the younger might size Rome with his veterans. The sources are a bit vague to what Calatinus really planned, but it certainly was not to take Rome by force, since Calatinus was not driven by political ambition. Fearing another period of bloodshed and terror – let’s not forget his father did try to take Rome by force against Silanus in 79 BC. So the Senators quickly took the opportunity to invade the home of Calatinus the younger and kill him on the 5th of August. That ultimately ended the line of the Atilius Calatinus family.

With one potential danger to the Senate solved the Senators still had to deal with Marc Anthony, who was the larger threat of the two. They wanted him to concede with the Senate to limit his power. Certainly the Senate did not want another man with supreme powers like Caesars. While Marc Anthony was marching back to Rome he did in fact show signs that he would not claim Caesars supreme power.
But then a young Quaestor returned from Spain claiming he was the sole heir to his uncle Marcus Julius Caesar. This man was Gaius Octavian Thurinus, a young man who was in fact adopted by his uncle in his testament. Henceforth Octavian changed his name to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavius claiming the political and military power of his uncle. And that was something no one could have excepted at all.

The Senate and Marc Anthony could have simply ignored the 23 year old lad and no one would have bothered with him. But by using the name of Caesars he spread unbelievable charm to the old veterans and the tenth legion which had returned with Calatinus.
So the Senate thought: ‘Okay – we have a young inexperienced man with hardly any political support and on the other hand a powerful general returning from the East with a couple of legions who probably will take Rome by force. Shouldn’t we try to manipulate the young lad and use the magic of his new name to stop Anthony?’
So the old Senator Dollabella supported the young new Caesar by acknowledging Caesars last will. Indeed Marc Anthony came to Rome without his troops – but rather to gather support with the population rather because he feared Octavian. For him the new Caesar was an annoying impostor with no political backing. By ignoring him, he hoped the young lad would disappear sooner or later. Octavian visited Marc Anthony and requested parts of Caesars fortune, but Anthony simply sent the boy away.
Anthony’s next move was to win the support of the people. He had brought Caesars dead body back to Rome and in September he staged a large burring ceremony and spoke the eulogy. Anthony won the support of the people with his empathic ways.
Of course that made the Senate sceptic, fearing that Anthony would now start to rise to supreme power like Caesar, so they started giving more and more support to Octavian, hoping to install a counterweight to the rising imbalance of the Roman State.
But for now Anthony had the power in the Senate and he brought a law through that would give him proconsular power over the Asian provinces for five years. While Dollabella and Orata still held speeches against Anthony, they where helpless seeing Anthony go to the east, where he could reap all the fame and fortune he needed to be the real successor to Caesar.

In the meanwhile Octavian made his legion swear an oath to his name – that is Caesars name and the Senate gave him legal imperium over the legion. Everything seemed like Octavian was becoming a puppet easy to be manipulated. But in February 39 BC one of the two consuls of Rome, consul Plankus, died of old age and Octavian immediately requested the vacant seat. This was an outrage to Dollabella and Orata who had supported him at first. The young lad wasn’t even 24 and he wanted to become the next consul. Of course they had to refuse. But Octavian simply went to his legion and marched with his men into Rome in March 39 BC.
Now this is one of the many coup d’etats we have seen in the last fifty years of the Roman Republic. But this one was especially bold since the man in command came out of nowhere, had no political allies or back up by the people of Rome. Octavian showed to be shrewd and ruthless, rather and inexperienced and manipulable. With Rome under military control he installed himself as consul and now the young Caesar had a political power that even Anthony could not ignore. Everyone feared that Anthony might declare war on Octavian and no one knew who the actual good guy in this case was.
With everyone keeping eyes on Octavian and Anthony we nearly forgot that there was a third man with a couple of legions in Gaul. Sextus Fabius Ambustus, the man Caesar left to conquer the rest of Gaul when he had to return to Rome from his campaign against Aedui. Octavian brought Ambustus to Rome and sent message for diplomatic talks to Anthony. Suprisingly to the public and the senate the three men met in Brundisium to talk about their sphere of influences. Anthony would get the east including Greece, Octavian Spain and Africa and Gaul for Ambustus. The three returned to Rome together, celebrating that they had averted another civil war. The people cheered, the Senate was helpless. The three men established the Lex Titia which install and legalised a second triumvirate as a official institution to reorganise the Roman State. By putting the Roman constitution upside down Octavian and Anthony had defacto ended the Roman Republic.
The first move of the Triumvirate was to confiscate money. The three men released proscription lists, banned a handful of Senators to exile and confiscated their goods. Among them was one of the Senatorial leaders, Sergius Orata.
With his position secured, Marc Anthony returned to the east. He seemed to be the winner of the conference at Brundisium. He had secured his position in the east, had more money, more troops and was hailed as the saviour of Rome by the general population.
Ambustus returned to Gaul, but failed to play any important part in the triumvirate.
Octavian remained in Rome, but his new land reforms saw tremendous resettlements in Italy for his troops which made him rather unpopular.

Back in the east Anthony met the Egyptian king Ladamos Ptolemiates, who he had met some five years ago when he was sent to Egypt by Caesar to watch the alliance between Rome and Egypt. The two were on amiable terms and Ladamos, who had no son, saw in Anthony a potential successor to the throne in Egypt. The both agreed that Anthony would marry his daughter Cleopatra in the coming year. On a side note Anthony also installed Herodes as the king of Judea during the same time.

In the meanwhile Octavian was starting his armament. He commanded his second in command Agrippa to build up a fleet, since Caesars fleet was still in the hands of Anthony. At the end of the year he met Ambustus at the conference of Bononia and brought him under his direct control. Octavian now effectively controlled the whole western part of the Roman Empire.
That led the remaining senators to believe that their young pupil had ultimately turned to a tyrant. On the 18th of November Octavian became the target of an assassination attempt that didn’t succeed. Full of anger he returned to Rome and released new prospricion lists that marked many Senators as enemy of the state. In the following days many Senators were executed in Rome, among them the leader of the Senate Dollabella, while Orata was assassinated in his exile in northern Italy. These ruthless executions were applauded by Anthony who greeted Octavian’s determined actions.
Alright, we will have a 15 minute break and after that we will talk about the breakdown of the triumvirate.

[TuCoT]

A very good AAR. ;)

[Fixiwee]

Thank you very much. :)

[Fixiwee]

Transcript of the college class lecture „The Roman Empire“ in 2003, University of Minnesota, USA

[Prof. Saramotti speaking]

Alright, welcome back from our break. Let’s continue right ahead – we have little time left.

The year 38 BC started with difficulties for Octavian. Marc Anthony’s brother Quintus had become one of the two consuls and started to act against Octavian, trying to gain his power. Octavian wasn’t too flattered about a rival trying to humiliate a triumvir and after turmoil broke out in Rome once again, the young Caesar brought his troops to Rome. Marc Anthony was actually pretty angered that one of his siblings operated against his legal political partner. Octavian chased Quintus to the town Luca with Anthony’s blessings and there he laid siege against him. In May it became clear that Quintus had overstretched his authority and he had no chance of winning against Octavian’s legion, so he eventually committed suicide. Ancient historians portrait Quintus as a tragic figure who tried to set a warning for his brother against the ruthless Octavian. I personally believe that they just wanted to add some tension to the events. Quintus was just as ruthless and opportunistic as his brother or his enemy Octavian. He gambled that he could defeat Octavian and replace him, making himself and his brother Marc Anthony the sole rulers of the Roman Republic. But Quintus lost and Octavian emerged ever more powerful out of the conflict.
While Octavian defeated Quintus, Marc Anthony married Cleopatra in a large ceremony in Alexandria. We will talk about Cleopatra a little bit later. After the marriage Marc Anthony immediately returned to Rome once again, after hearing numerous reports that Octavian was building a large naval fleet that could threaten his superiority at sea. In July the two triumvirs met in Tarent. Octavian took the initiative and immediately proposed a joint disarmament. Of course Octavian wasn’t after a permanent peace settlement, but tried to use the effects of propaganda to his cause. Octavian was trying to get the people of Rome behind him, after all he was still rather unpopular with the masses. Nevertheless Marc Anthony agreed, announcing that he planned another campaign against the Parthians that would continue where Caesars sudden death had put a stop. For Anthony the backing in Tarent was important because he could take additional troops from Greece to the east. For Octavian this conference was a huge propaganda effort, he returned to Rome and was cheered as the new peace saviour who had prevented civil war. Of course much of this image was staged by Octavian, but for now it did the trick.
And indeed after the conference the situation seemed to stabilise. Octavian was gaining more support; Anthony had the powerful riches of the east at his disposal and an army ready to invade Parthia.
And in 37 BC Anthony did start his campaign. After immediate smaller victories he marched into the Parthian lands and met the enemy army at Dabane on the forth of May.

The battle of Dabane - 37 BC


Anthony's army facing the Parthians.


Anthony had brought strong cavallry from Gaul to counter the Parthian Cataphracts.




Syrian elite archers firing at the enemy.


The left flank saw a massive Parthian cavalry build up.


Parthian archers getting into position.


The Roman auxiliary troops had become uneasy over the massive cavarly build up.


Anthony did not attack the enemy line and gave away the initiative to the enemy.


The feared Cataphracts punching against the Roman main line.


Roman elite troops getting ready to support the centre of the battle.


The Cataphracts are doing the trick; the center of the Roman line is getting completley pierced through.


Meanwhile the right flank saw a massive Parthian charge and the defense broke away. The right flank was completley open.


Anthony realises that he has lost the battle and orders to withdraw.


Anthony did not wait with his troops to withdraw, but rode away leaving his troops to die.





The rest of the Roman army is cut down by the Parthians.


The Roman eagle shortly before it gets into Parthian hands.


The battle of Dabane is lost.

The loss at Dabane changed the political course of Anthony. He returned to Alexandria and despite his loss he celebrated a Roman triumph in the Egyptian city. The message to the masses was that Anthony had prevented another Parthian invasion.
The curious thing about this triumph was that both he and his wife Cleopatra were dressed as the old Egyptian gods Isis and Osiris. All of the sudden Anthony started to embrace ancient, let’s call it un-roman, traditions and install his reign in the form of a Hellenistic monarchy. His first son was given the Name of Caesarion with the title King of Kings to underline the defacto heritage of Caesar. If that was not enough to anger Octavian Anthony also pronounced that he received an oracle which told him that the two parts of the Roman Empire would soon re-unite.
Now it’s really hard to judge for us historian what really happened here. Before Dabane we have an able, intelligent and charismatic Anthony and after his loss he suddenly falls for weird customs that provoke Octavian to the limits. What is wrong here? Let’s not forget that the sources we have were written after Octavian won the last civil war so it should be obvious that there is a lot of anti-Anthony propaganda added to it. But as historians we have to subtract the propaganda details, and if we do that we still see that Anthony was embracing an eastern Hellenistic monarchy and it was obvious that Cleopatra influenced him.

Anyway, how did Octavian react to this? He set for total confrontation by exiling about a hundred Senators out of Rome who supported Anthony. Then he did something unheard of, he forced the Vestalines to publish Anthony’s last-will. This text actually only said that Anthony wished to be buried next to Cleopatra in Alexandria and that Caesarion was his sole successor. But rumour had it, partly staged by Octavian’s propaganda, that Anthony planned to make Cleopatra the queen of Rome and that their sons would get large portions of the east. While these rumours may sound absurd to us, it did the trick with the masses. In a rare event for antiquity there was something like a national outrage against Anthony.
This enabled Octavian to rise to supreme power, he was elected as a consul sine collega, which means that he would become sole consul. The young Caesar now set all flags for war. And with the first January 36 BC Octavian had become consul and dictator, gathering troops all over Italy. In the meanwhile Anthony and Cleopatra had arrived in Greece preparing their side for the upcoming civil war. All over the year both sides gathered large masses of troops and set their fleets to patrol the sea. It became clear that Octavian’s troops where not ready for battle yet so he extended his consul- and dictatorship for another year without anyone objecting it.
In 35 BC it finally came to it. In the most ancient tradition Octavian declared war against Cleopatra – notably not against Anthony – by throwing a spear against her fictional territory in the Temple of the war goddess Bellona. He let all Italy swear an oath to his person. We do not know the exact oath but in his auto-biography he tells us: iuravit in mea verba tota Italia – which means “all of Italy swore an oath of allegiance to me.”

Alright people, looks like we ran out of time already. Prepare for next week, we got the high noon grand finale of the civil war upon us, so don’t miss out on that one. See you all next week.