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    Bruadair a'Bruaisan Member cmacq's Avatar
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    Default Preview: The Lugiones

    Greetings Europa Barbarorum fans.


    Today we are proud to present the Lugiones, from the deepest, darkest forests of eastern Germania come the terrifying warriors of this powerful nation. Kinsmen to the last, these fearsome men of the wild east have spread themselves throughout much of the land there, even up to the great plains of the Sauromatae. For what the "civilised" world calls death, these men know as life.

    The Lugiones represent a new threat and a new way of life; alien to those weak men of the city. And when a man has no home, how then can he be enslaved?



    Faction Description

    Throughout all the nations of the Lugiones, humankind was ordered by the conventions of kinship, and within the limits of law, freemen ruled themselves as they saw fit. Herein, a small ruling class lived much as those they governed. The latter of which were exceedingly great in number. That both bore weapons and in full measure prepared and participated in what was a constant state of endless war. To affect this cause all men served as warriors, levied every year to defend and extend their realm. Otherwise, they remained to tend their farmsteads, so that neither the pursuit of war, nor subsistence was ever neglected. As well they owned few slaves, a small number of which were kept as tenants, while the greater portion thus ensnared, were sold to satisfy local needs or the bottomless greed of the Mediterranean markets. Also by choice the Lugiones did not build large walled capitals or towns, and forbid the private ownership of land. Of the common land that was tilled, fields and farmsteads were often relocated, so that the ties that bind kith and kin to the land would not risk the survival of their nations. To a great extent these people lived off the milk and beef produced by their cattle. In addition some fished as many hunted the game that abounded throughout their vast wilderness.
    Between the 4th century BC and early 1st century AD, the Mediterranean world viewed greater Germania as divided amidst five seperate races. Although the form and human face of each region was similar and overlapped one to another, all differed somewhat in tradition, law, and tongue. In the south along the upper reaches of the Elbe, Rhine, and Danube were the Volcae Celts, whom the Romans called the Istriaones. This name came from the Goddess and the mighty river the Greeks called Istros. Their principle tribes were the Ubii, Tectosages, and Boii. Along the lower Rhine, coast of the Wadden Sea, and Cimbri Peninsula were the Ingaeuones. Its claimed they sired the mighty Belgae, a people that would one day come to hold much of Gaul and the Isle of Britain. Then from where the North-winds blow there is a mysterious place of unknown size and shape. They say in this land of cold and shadow dwell the Gautes, a race of tall and vigorous men. To the east were the Irminones, of which its said the Semnones were indeed an ancient tribe who lead the fearsome Swaboz. Nonetheless, still further east are the Wenetai, who extend far into the lands of Sauromatae. Here there are so many nations, with the Lugiones in the west, the Æstai to the north, as well as the Bastarnae and Sciri in the east. Each tribe was numerous, renowned for bravery, and as is their custom watch over the southward flow of amber, furs, and slaves as wine, weapons, and silver trickles north.

    Indeed, the Lugiones were unaccustomed to obligation or discipline, and altogether disinclined and opposed to bring about a common will. To this end their rulers, as well as the common man, nurtured violence to produce a huge collection of savage humanity seemingly unable to be united by a single cause for any span of time. This inhibition was only magnified by the few roads and the enormity of their domain, together with the length, breath, and depth of their forests, swamps, and waterways. Yet it was in this manner and by these means that with great success the Lugiones resisted the aggressive and persistent advances of the Celts, Sauromatae, and later the Romans. Offered as friend or foe, each in turn represented a direr challenge to the continued independence of their tribes, and thereby the personal freedom of all. Once well versed in communal songs their story now remains largely shrouded in shadow, and all but dimly lit by the written-word of more literate nations. Still, with the fullness of time, great patience, and the proper leadership sudden chance may intervene, and prove the right person can indeed unit the Lugii people for more than a moment. Yet its often said whichever way the tides of fate are turned, fickled fortune and the Gods help only those who help themselves.




    Faction Symbol

    The symbol for the Lugiones Faction consists of pale yellow crescent moon with downturned horns centered on a light blue circular shield made of rough-hewn planks. The interior of the crescent is decorated with a pale yellow late La Tene-like scroll pattern. Superimposed upon the crescent is a pale yellow icon known as the V-rod motif. Together these motifs are a masterfully adaptation of what is referred to as the crescent and arrow V-rod symbol commonly found in northern Scotland, as incised rock-art on Pictish Stone. These sculptures have been dated to the 6th to 9th century AD and the symbols thereon are widely understood to represent totems that were associated with particular tribal, clan, and personal names. Overall the shield and faction symbol are bounded by a narrow pale yellow edge.
    The rational for using this symbol for the Lugiones Faction are two fold. First, as discussed above, the faction name is intended to signify the primal form of the Lugus deity, who was often abstractly expressed by a pale colored light and a lunar symbol. Second, the clustering of Pictish Stones in northern Scotland with the crescent and V-rod appears to be roughly similar to at least part of the territorial extent of a tribe that Ptolemy named the Lugi. Although the relationship between the Lugi of northern Scotland and the Lugii of Poland is unclear, a common association with the Lugus deity is assumed. Therefore it was agreed that the crescent and V-rod symbol would be used to represent the Lugiones Faction.


    Last edited by cmacq; 01-03-2011 at 02:10.
    quae res et cibi genere et cotidiana exercitatione et libertate vitae

    Herein events and rations daily birth the labors of freedom.

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  2. #2
    Bruadair a'Bruaisan Member cmacq's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    Land of the Lugiones


    Based on a western Baltic affiliation, the Lugiones are viewed as an important element of the Vistulic Veneti, which we have reconstructed as the Wenetai. However, given the need to be more specific one must also address the political aspect of the Lugii confederation, which we render simply as the Lugiones. Our primary sources for the Wenetai, include Book 4 of Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, Chapter 46 of Tactius’ Germania, Book 3 of Ptolemy’s Geography, the 4th century Peutinger Map, and Jordanes’ Getica. In contrast our knowledge of the tribes that compose the Lugiones confederation is limited to Tactius’ Germania, Book 2 of Ptolemy’s Geography, and Jordanes’ Getica.
    In chapter 43 of Germania, Tacitus turned to the Lugii tribes, of whom he saw as distinct from the Istaevones, Ingaevones, and Ierminones. He began this discussion by using Greek forms of the confederation name itself. These included the Harios, Helveconas, Manimos, Helisios, Naharvalos, and Lugio. It seems throughout Germania, Tacitus used a mix of Latin, Celtic, and Greek suffixes depending on his familiarity with the subject or source. In this case the use of Greek and the brevity of the discussion suggest he had no directly knowledge and may have been using a text Greek. He states that beyond the continuous mountains as one 'drives on,’ which means 'continues;' a phrase suggesting a purposeful movement along a well established route. Thus, in this case Tacitus may have used a Greek itinerary that outlined one or both of the two major amber roads that crossed the Moravian-Silesian Beskids and Carpathian mountains into the central Polish uplands.



    __Luguwa (Central Poland)___________________________
    Introduction:
    Daily the sun passes over a land of open plains hemmed by dense woodlands, swamps, and lakes. As well the enterprising traveler bears witness to thickly-forested uplands and well-timbered ancient mountain peaks. Whereby he may pass along the Amber Road or other less-worn paths, the length and breath of this domain is crossed by countless rivers, brooks, and streams. Altogether, fleeting shadows and husted tones among the trees, tell the traveler this mist-shrouded realm is the homeland of the war-like tribes, that are the Lugiones confederation. This place is called Luguwa (LEWK-uhwah), and the natives live in small farmsteads scattered throughout this rather rustic landscape. By decree individual holdings are held in common, whereby convention and the threat of endless war requires they relocate their homes, yearly. Indeed, they are addicted to war and its spoils, as personal worth and fame are measured only by success in battle, while the fruits of the plow garner far less regard.
    Geography:
    Depending on what measurement is used, Luguwa can be located very near the geographic center of Europe. It is composed of two distinct physiographic zones; the first of which is an extensive lowland area also known as a part of the vast northern European Plain. The second physiographic zone includes a series of mountain ranges called the central uplands, or the Hercynian zone. This region is traversed by a series of large, but shallow valleys and the Warta (Warta), Noteć (Natissis), Narew (Naura), Brda, Western Bug (Bugas), and Vistula (Wisla) rivers. This part of Lugiuva is where the bulk of the native population reside has the lowest relief, which rarely exceeds an elevation of 150 meters above sea level. The disruption of vegetation types within the lowlands zone can best be described as mosaic, with numerous open grasslands interspaced within a matrix of woodlands, groves, bogs, marshes, and gallery forests that parallel the major and minor drainages. In fact, about 90 percent of the grasslands in Luguwa are situated in the Central Lowlands with the remainder found in isolated meadows and pastures in the mountainous central uplands. The central uplands represent an eastern extension of the primeval Hercynian Forest, which runs from the Rhine, across southern Germania, to the furthest extent of the Carpathians (Mountains of the Carpi). Overall, the dense forests of Luguwa are home to a vast variety of flora types largely composed of Larch, Poplar, Oak, Sycamore, Black Alder, Elm, White Willow, small-leaved Lime, Bilberry, Birch, Fir, and Beech trees; as well as many other broadleaf trees and coniferous Pines, Firs, and Spruce. Luguwa has a temperate climate with precipitation evenly distributed. Spring and fall are somewhat short, the summers typically range from warm to hot, while the winters are very cool to cold, the farther one travels south.

    Social and Political Organization:
    The social and political organization of Lugiuva can best be characterized as a system of tribal based chiefdoms that represent relatively egalitarian collectives that displayed little evidence of stratification. As a multilayered ethnicity these communities seem to have shared a somewhat common set of legal, religious, and militaristic customs. These tribes were ruled by clan affiliation and temporary charismatic leaders that were maintained by small groups of heavily-armed retainers and local craft-specialist. However, these tribes were informally administered by an ill-define religious cast and by virtue of their numbers, real authority and the power to act, as well as the cause and course of indenture was held by the general citizenry, whom were but common freemen.

    Proto-History:
    Due to extensive archaeological survey and excavation the proto-history of the Luguwa province is relatively well understood. The historical stage opens with the 7th century BC Lusatian Culture, which was influenced by the late Hallstatt Culture and characterized by large fortified settlements and extensive cremation cemeteries. In the 6th century this region was also repeatedly attacked by Scythian nomads that targeted the Lusatian settlements and may have contributed to the collapse of this culture around 500 BC. Thereafter attacks by eastern nomads stopped and the vacuum was quickly filled by the southern expansion of the Pomeranian Culture. In chapter 43 of Germania, Tacitus tells us that later the tribes that occupied much of modern Poland shared the name Lugiones (Lugii). As individuals they include the Helveconas, Manimos, Kelisios, Harios, and Nahanarvali; of the latter two, the renowned Roman historian proved slightly more detail. The Harios, or Karios, were accomplished and much feared night-fighters while the Nahanarvali were connected to the Baltic Aswiniai cult and holy grove sites called Alkas. Archaeologically, these tribes were initially represented by the late Pomeranian and, after the mid 3rd century BC, the early Przeworsk cultures. Both constructs can be characterized as pastorally based tribal societies, with the populous residing in small scattered farmsteads and hamlets. They preferred not to have established capitals and in no way used stone, timber, ditch, or mound to enhance the defense of their settlements.

    In this order, their most important pursuits were tied to war and the maintenance of their cattle herds, the chief reasons they frequently changed the locations of their settlements. As for war the sources that generally speak of the peoples of greater Germania we lean that the Lugiones did not trust man-made walls. Rather, they relied on the warriors of the common levy who were made ready for war by the very nature of their rustic society and daily environmental challenges. It was claimed they possessed an unmatched ferocity in battle and often with a single-mind were imperious to hardship or reversal. From the texts and excavated warriors burials of this period, we learn that the common levy was simply armed with a spear, javelins, and shield. However, burials of far better armed warriors have been found, including well-made swords, spears, helmets, shields, and body armor of Celtic design; these internments no doubt represent members of the war-leader’s retinue. Arms recovered from 1st century BC warrior burials also demonstrate a wider range of weapons and indicate that troops were being organized around and trained in the use of specific weapon sets.

    Although the Przeworsk Culture continued until the 4th century AD, by the beginning of the current era it experienced significant change, losing much of its West Baltic character by the mid 1st century AD. This process seems to be linked to the collapse of the La Tene Culture and the Swabian's rise to power. Some suggest that the rejuvenated Swabians and newly constituted Vandalic tribes were buoyed by a steady flow of people from northern Scandinavia, yet this goes beyond the scope of our study. It may be suffice to say that as small migrating groups gathered, they coalesced with native populations to form new polities, which soon proved extremely aggressive. Nearing the end of the 1st century BC the Swabian confederation expanded to encompass most of modern Germany east of the Rhine and Bohemia. The Lugiones countered this by allying with the Swabians of Bohemia against those of the Elbe region. However, within a few decades Vandalic tribes had gained control of Pomerania, and through a process that included open warfare, direct migration, infiltration, and acculturation were actively reducing the authority of the Lugiones polity.

    Strategy:
    Although Luguwa has significant agricultural potential, under the Lugiones faction it was an important source for cattle; as well as a vital iron mining and weapon manufacturing district. Geographically, it controlled several of the primary trade routes, called ‘Amber Roads,’ that connected the middle Danube basin to the Baltic Sea region. This province literally represents the extent of the early Przeworsk culture and the political core of the Lugii confederation. For the Lugiones faction to exert hegemony over eastern Europe, control of this province is impetrative, while its domination by the opposition will no doubt reduce the western Balts to a state of vassalage.






    Lands of the Wenetai



    __Pomera (Historic Pomerania)___________________________
    Introduction:
    In late fall the admirable traveler stares across a sandy beach towards the wind-swept sea called Morimarusa (Baltic). Biding time, he awaits arrival of the craft commissioned to take him to his winter-quarters, still farther north. In the native tongue this land is called Pomera (Pomerania), because it faces onto the sea. In ancient times it ran from the Wisla's (Vistula) environs to the Cimbric Peninsula (Denmark), but more recent events dictate it extends not beyond the bay of the Widur (Oder) River. Except for several small inlets and swamps the coastal plain has been smoothed by the ceaseless assault of the sea. Inland this realm of sandy soil is marshy, hilly, heavily forested, and dotted with numerous lakes. It is inhabited by a warlike tribe named the Læmowes (Lemovii), meaning ‘the smashers,’ who live in small farmsteads scattered all about. These people farm the earth as best they can and conflicts permit, but primarily subsist off their cattle herds and the profits bestowed by endless war.
    Geography:
    Pomera roughly corresponds to historic extent of the Pomerania region; as well as Pomesania, Kulmerland, and part of Masovia. This province is crossed by the north flowing Vistula River which empties into the Baltic Sea. This region is defined by three discrete geographic zones; which include a coastal plain, uplands, and river delta (Vistula Delta). The vegetation is largely related to these major geomorphology settings, whereas the coastal plain, as an extension of the Northern European Plain, is dominated by grassland and small relatively isolated deciduous forests. Furthermore, the upland area known as the hilly Baltic Ridge includes an extensive lake district is characterized by a mixed deciduous and conifer forests. Known as the Żuławy, the river delta is a low wetland with numerous stream and river channels, ponds, bogs, marshes, and swamps that support a variety of aquatic plants, scrubs, and segmented forests. Pomera has a continental climate with precipitation somewhat evenly distributed. However, spring and fall are somewhat short, the summers typically range from warm to very warm, and the winters are cool to cold.

    Social and Political Organization:
    The social and political organization of Pomera can best be characterized as a system of tribal based chiefdoms that represent relatively egalitarian collectives that displayed little evidence of stratification. As a multilayered ethnicity these communities seem to have shared a somewhat common set of legal, religious, and militaristic customs. Overall, these tribes were informally administered by an ill-define religious cast and ruled by dominant clan affiliations and an assembly of the general citizenry, which formed the overwhelming bulk of the populous.

    Proto-History:
    Due to extensive archaeological survey and excavation the proto- or culture-history of the province of Pomera is relatively well understood. In the late 8th century BC, about the time the first fortified Lusatian settlements were established, a large number of small dispersed settlements situated along the wide coastal strip between the mouth of the Vistula and the Oder rivers began to reflect a common set of traits. In archaeological terms these traits are known as the Face-Urn or Pomeranian Culture. Yet, these attributes were identical to those that defined the Lusatian Culture, with the notable exception of extensive cemeteries and large fortified villages. The dispersed farmsteads and modest burial areas of Pomeranian complex, may indeed represent only contrasting scales, whereby the latter example is a less sophisticate basal stratum, and the former the upper end of societal stratification. Nonetheless, tree-ring dates indicate that all of the large fortified villages of the Lusatain Culture were abandoned by 500 BC. In contrast, the proliferation of burials interned with distinctive Face-Urn funerary vessels and Pomeranian farmsteads continued unabated as this culture spread to the south and east.

    In the 5th century BC, after the Pomeranian Culture had become firmly entrenched in Vorpommern to include the Gubener group and throughout Pomerania to the Vistula. At this point, by tribal migration it slowly spread east across the Vistula River into Pomesania, Kulmerland, and part of Masovia; as well as south into lesser Poland, Silesia, and Masovia. By the mid 3rd century this manifestation was slowly replaced by the Oksywie culture. While this complex is characterized by the introduction of bog Iron extraction techniques, development of weapon or warrior burials, and increased interaction with the Cimberic bronze jewelry industry in Denmark, its attributes were largely based on those of its predecessor. Thus, a developmental continuum between the Pomeranian and Oksywie cultures is assumed. The only historical reference to this region that may relate to the Europa Barbarorum II timeframe, comes from Germania, written in the 1st century AD. Form Tacitus we discern that Pomerania was occupied by a war-like people called the Lemovii, who were armed with short swords and round shields. The Lemovii tribal name seems very similar Ptolemy's 2nd century AD Leuonoi or the Medieval Lami people of Courtland. This name may be derived from the West Baltic root Lam- or Lem-; meaning to ‘wreck, break’ or ‘smash.’

    Nonetheless, by the beginning of the 1st century AD Tacitus informs us that the Rugii, from the Old Norse rugr meaning ‘rye-farmers,’ had become the Lemovii's neighbors. The Rugii and the more eastern Goths represent the replacement of the Oksywie by the Wielbark culture, which is primarily characterized by high-status inhumations or cremations and an absence of warrior burials. In fact they seem to have had a taboo against burying weapons or indeed any iron artifact with their dead. The only possible indication of warrior burials are pairs of bronze spurs interned as funerary offerings. The Wielbark Culture more or less corresponds to Jordanes' 6th century Getica account of a Berigian migration from Scandza. Indeed the Wielbark culture includes may of the native traits and attributes found in the preceding Oksywie culture. However, there can be little doubt that this development represents one aspect of a larger phenomenon that entailed a long series of small scale migrations that engulfed the Baltic world. This process ultimately culminated in the relocation of a sizable population from northern Scandinavia and the merging with native groups, over the course of a century. Thus as part of the greater Vandalic manifestation, the Wielbark Culture symbolized the emergence of what would soon prove a dynamic and aggressive new ethnos.

    Strategy:
    For the most part Pomera is a densely wooded coastal upland with only limited agricultural potential. However it was an important district for raising livestock and fishing. It is also known as a place were furs, amber, ivory, and slaves from the Baltic were passed south, while trade goods from the Mediterranean world were funneled north. Geographically, it controlled several of the primary trade routes, called ‘Amber Roads,’ that connected the middle Danube to the Baltic Sea region. This province literally represents the extent of the Oksywie culture and the tribal Lemovii. For the Lugiones faction to exert hegemony over eastern Europe, control of this province is necessary, while its domination by the opposition will significantly hinder expansion of the western Balts.







    __Æstuwa (Historic East Prussia and Lithuania)___________________________
    Introduction:
    With color splayed, the sun’s rays filter through the forest canopy to the wonderment of the far-off traveler. Later our wayfarer finds the waves of the Morimarusa Sea (Baltic), washing yet another foreign shore. Here he seeks a much sought gem known in the indigenous tongue as glæsos (glass), whereas the Greeks say 'electron;' a glassy gift from the God Helios. For good reason, still others call it amber, the 'Burn-stone.' For countless years, this quest has lured many beyond the Wisla (viss-LA [Vistula]), to the land of large bays, open plains, hills, deep forests, swamps, and many rivers called Æstuwa. Indeed this is home to the tribes called the Æstai (hes-TAY [Aestii]), meaning spearmen. These natives dwell in small farmsteads scattered far and wide, while their nobles reside in hill forts, encircled by the ditch and high-mounded timber walls. This brave and war-like people own herds of cattle, goats, and sheep; yet favor more the arts of farming. Its said they venerate a mother goddess, and wear her emblem as a wild boar, which instead of armor they believe she will protect better, even amidst an enemy. Besides the spear, the Æstai seldom employ swords, while in the heat of battle they are often seen with clubs.
    Geography:
    The province of Æstuwa includes much of the historic extent of East Prussia and Lithuania. Geographically, this region primarily consists of two large bays and a series of open plains and hilly or mountainous upland areas crossed by the Venta and Musa rivers, as well as the lower portion of the Neman drainage system with its large coastal delta. The vegetation is largely defined by these major geomorphology settings. For example, the coastal plain and middle lowlands, as the farthest extension of the Northern European Plain, are dominated by grasslands, or in swampy areas aquatic scrublands, with small relatively isolated deciduous forests. The upland areas include the Samogitian highlands or the northeast extension of the Baltic Ridge with numerous swamps and literally thousands of small lakes. This area is characterized by a mixture of open meadows and dense deciduous or conifer forests. Finally, the Neman river delta is a low wetland with numerous stream and river channels, ponds, bogs, marshes, and swamps that support a variety of aquatic plants, scrubs, and segmented forests. Æstuwa has a continental climate with precipitation somewhat evenly distributed. However, spring and fall are somewhat short, the summers typically range from warm to very warm, and the winters are cool to cold.

    Social and Political Organization:
    The political and social organization of Æstuwa can be expressed as a confederation of small tribal based chiefdoms. These were organized as a low-level feudalistic society that displayed only limited stratification. As a diverse ethnicity the communities that composed this polity shared a somewhat common set of legal, religious, and militaristic traditions. These communities were ruled by a small warrior-elite, that was enabled by a symbiotic relationship with the lower classes. The elites were also supported and maintained by a system of limited servitude, which was informally administered by religious and secular magistrates. To provide the requisite logistics for the aristocracy and symbolize the extent and authority of the state, this system was anchored by a network of small fortified settlements.

    Proto-History:
    Although this region did not fully emerge into historic view until the Medieval Period, the proto- or culture-history of Æstuwa is relatively well understood. From Tacitus’ Germania we learn that this region was home to the Æstai (Aestii), a name apparently derived from the West Baltic word asti, like the Latin hasta, meaning ‘spearmen.’ Tacitus tells us that they lived along the shore of the Baltic Sea from where they collected amber. In archaeological terms the Aestii ethnos was the western Baltic Tumulus culture, which was reconizable by the middle of the 7th century BC. This construct was represented by three local expressions; the east Mazuria, west Mazuria, and Sambia archaeological groups. Overall, the material assemblage associated with this complex included globe-shaped or round-bottom jars and mugs with tall necks, wide-mouth egg-shaped bowls, and vessels with multi-level handles. These were decorated with incised exterior, roughed, or a smoothed surface.

    Cemeteries consisted of small tumuli with individual or multiple chest burials with cremation urns deposited on stone pavements. Settlements were typically farmsteads and small lakeside- or hill-fort villages. In fact, the distribution of these fortified sites across the landscape indicates that they served as the strongholds of local chieftains. Initially West Balt Tumuli Culture was largely dependent on tools and jewelry manufactured in the Pomeranian culture area. However, by the 4th century BC, native bronze production increased considerably and in the 3rd century with the introduction of bog Iron extraction techniques local industries were developed to the point where domestic artifacts had outstripped foreign imports. Nonetheless, the local production of iron arms and weaponry continued to lag considerably, well into the Europa Barbarorum II timeframe. In the mid 3rd century BC the West Balt Tumuli Culture appeared to contract under the influence of the Oksywie Culture in Warmia and Mazuria, as the Przeworsk Culture penetrated into Mazovia, while a more concrete expression of this process is the development of the Nidzica group.

    The period between the end of the 3rd and beginning of the 1st centuries BC also witnessed a dramatic increase in the number and type of artifacts associated with both the Oksywie and Przeworsk cultures. No doubt due to the economic conduit created by the expanded Przeworsk culture influence, large numbers of late Latene artifacts have been recovered from West Balt Tumuli Culture burial contexts. The final West Balt Tumuli developmental phase roughly corresponds to the terminus of the 1st century BC and is directly linked to the replacement of the Oksywie by the Wielbark culture. Referred to as the early Roman Iron Age, although the ceramic tradition seems unaltered several significant changes in the material culture are apparent. The practice of marking important burials with earthen mounds was discontinued, a number of large unfortified villages were established, and hill-fort villages were abandoned in favor of defensive refugia that lack residential components. This final episode also witnessed an increase in the number and types of contacts and exchanges that revolved around the trade of amber occurred between the Baltic and Mediterranean worlds.

    Strategy:
    Æstuwa is an important agricultural and fishing district, as well as a source of Amber. It also symbolized a market for exotic furs and due to a nearly constant state of war, it produced a never ending stream of slaves. Geographically, it was the head of several prominent trade routes, called ‘Amber Roads,’ that connected the middle Danube to the Baltic Sea region. Some of these extended east into the vast hinterland, as far as the upper Volga. This province literally represents the extent of the western BalticTumulus culture and the tribal Aestii. For the Lugiones faction to exert hegemony over Eastern Europe, control of this province is necessary, while its domination by the opposition will significantly hinder expansion of the western Balts.





    __Wenetwa (Historic Belarus)__________________________
    Introduction:
    For weeks on end, the ambling traveler is passed from one guide to another, until a landlocked realm of rolling hills, plains, forests, swamps, and lakes is revealed. As fate dictates, this country includes the headwaters of countless streams, foremost of these connect to the Nawra (Narew), Bugas (Western Bug), Preipetē (Pripet), and Nemuna (Neman) rivers. Indeed this is hearth and home to the tribes called Wenetai (Veneti), meaning 'those afoot;' from which the region Wenetwa, takes its name. They draw much from the wandering-ways, for everywhere to the east, through forests and uplands they’re aroused to raid. Nonetheless, they are sedentary because their homes and small scattered settlements are fixed; they bear shields, rejoice to be swift-of-foot, and in all other ways differ from the true nomads that reside in horse-drawn wagons. While, crops are sowed and reaped to some extent, they favor raising cattle, sheep, goats, and are otherwise much given to the pursuit and profit of war.
    Geography:
    The province of Wenetwa includes much of the territory covered by the Grodno and Brest districts, as well as the western portion of the Minsk Oblast, of Belarus and the western Ukraine. This region consists of two large hilly plains, central uplands, and an extensive low wetlands area; wherein each geographic zone enjoys discrete environmental settings and vegetation types. The regional vegetation is directly related to the geomorphology setting. For example, the hilly plains are dominated by grassland, scattered groves of deciduous trees, and narrow gallery forests that line the larger streams and rivers. Large and diverse deciduous forests prevail in the central upland zone, while the eastern lowlands represent the meandering streams, ponds, bogs, swamps, and general wetland environment of the enormous Pripet marsh. Overall, Wenetwa has a temperate climate with precipitation rather evenly distributed. Spring and fall are short, the summers typically range from warm to hot, while the winters are very cool to cold, the farther one travels north.

    Social and Political Organization:
    The social and political organization of Wenetwa can best be characterized as a system of tribal based chiefdoms that represent relatively egalitarian collectives that displayed little evidence of stratification. As a multilayered ethnicity these communities seem to have shared a somewhat common set of legal, religious, and militaristic customs. Overall, these tribes were informally administered by an ill-define religious cast and ruled by dominant clan affiliations and an assembly of the general citizenry.

    Proto-History:
    Our current understanding of the proto-history of the Wenetwa region and thus the tribal Wenetai (Veneti) is somewhat uneven. First off, the classical use of Venetī is certainly both general and specific. For example, this term was indiscriminately used to denote Gaulish, Adriatic, and Vistulic expressions each seemingly independent and possessing an unclear etymological relationship. Speaking in less broad terms, in chapter 46 of Tacitus' Germania, we find that the Vistulic Veneti lived between the Bastarnae and Phinnoi; the later appear to roughly represent the Greek Androphagi. Herein, Tacitus seems to include a number of discrete yet related tribes and cultural groups. Thus, its assumed that Venetī was a generic term that suggested a West Baltic ethnos, which in the context of eastern Europe, could be applied to the tribal elements associated with the Oksywie, Poienesti-Lukashevka, Pomeranian, Przeworsk cultures, West Balt Tumuli, and Zarubintsy cultures.

    However, our proto-historic overview of this region opens with the 7th century and the eastern most extent of the Lusatian Culture. In the 6th century this region was also repeatedly attacked by Scythian nomads that targeted the large fortified Lusatian settlements and may have contributed to the collapse of this culture around 500 BC. Thereafter attacks by eastern nomads stopped and the Wysocko Group quickly rose to premininance. While the small Wysocko settlements represent a local expression these were soon joined by newcomers from the Face-Urn or Pomeranian Culture. Throughout the 5th and 4th century BC the latter spread south and east slowly replacing the Wysocko Group. By the mid 3rd century BC the Pomeranian expression was quickly replaced by the Przeworsk Culture and elements of the Zarubintsy Culture, referred to as the Pripet Group. Thus, given the geographic setting, a number of tribes mentioned in the Classical sources seem to be directly linked to Zarubintsy Culture.

    From Pliny the Elder's Natural History we learn that this region was occupied by the Sciri and Hirri, who were also known as the Vistulic Veneti. Although written in the mid 1st century AD, the Scirii can be dated as early as 230 BC, with the Bastarnae attack on the Greek colony of Oblia. The Scirii tribal name may be compared to the Old Prussian skirits; Lithuanian skaistus; and Latvian skaidrs, meaning clean, chaste, and pure. Therefore, Scirii or Skirai could have meant 'those who are pure,' which demonstrates a West Baltic affiliation. On the other hand the tribal Hirri seem to represent a form of the Old Indic Arya, or Old Persian Ariya. This may be similar to the Baltic Arias or Ari, which roughly correspond to the Middle Eastern applications, and suggest 'those that farm' or 'those that roam.' From Ptolemy's Geographia, other tribal names that were associated with this region were the Galindai and Soudinoi; clearly the historic West Baltic Galindi and Sudovi/Yotvingi before they shifted northwest into East Prussia, in the late Roman Iron Age and early Germanic Period.

    Strategy:
    Although Wenetwa has the potential to become an important agricultural district, currently its economy is centered on cattle, swine, and sheep. Some Iron is extracted from the swamps and bogs, which with great effort is largely fashioned into the deadly tools of war. However, its most valuable resources are found in animal pelts, that are traded eat for copper, which is exchanged for Baltic Amber. Geographically, this region controls several prominent trade routes, called ‘Amber Roads,’ that connected the upper Volga to the Baltic Sea region. As a compromise this province represents elements of the Incised Pottery culture, as well as the Pripet, Chechersk-Kisteni, and Goroshkov-Chaplin groups of the Zanubinsty culture. For the Lugiones faction to exert hegemony over Eastern Europe, control of this province is necessary, while its domination by the opposition will significantly hinder expansion of the western Balts.










    Last edited by cmacq; 02-27-2011 at 18:01.
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    Bruadair a'Bruaisan Member cmacq's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    The Lugiones and Wenetai Tribes

    Within a broad regional or larger ethnic context, the Lugiones can be viewed as an element of the Vistulic Veneti, which based on a West Baltic affiliation, we have reconstructed as the Wenetai. However, given the need to address the historic polity, herein the Lugii are differentiated and render as the Lugiones. Our primary references that mention the Wenetai, as well as the Budinjoi (Budini) and Neurjoi (Neuri), elements of which under that proper circumstances may also be considered Vistulic Veneti, include a number of sources. These are Herodotus’ Histories, Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, Tactius’ Germania, Ptolemy’s Geography, the Peutinger Map, and Jordanes’ Getica. In contrast, our knowledge of the tribes that composed the Lugiones confederation is limited to Tactius’ Germania and Book 2 of Ptolemy’s Geography.
    In chapter 43 of Germania, Tacitus turned to the Lugii tribes, of whom he saw as distinct from the Istaevones, Ingaevones, and Ierminones. Interestingly, as Tacitus began this discussion he used the Greek form to include the confederation name itself. These included the Harios, Helveconas, Manimos, Helisios, Naharvalos, and Lugio. It seems throughout Germania, Tacitus used a mix of Latin, Celtic, and Greek suffixes depending on his familiarity with the subject or source. In this case the use of Greek and the brevity of the discussion suggest he had no directly knowledge and may have been using a source written in Greek. He states that beyond the continuous mountains as one 'drives on,’ which means 'continues;' a phrase suggesting the purposeful movement alone a well established route. Thus, Tacitus may have been using a Greek itinerary that outlined one or both of the two major routes of the Amber Road as it crossed the Moravian-Silesian Beskids and Carpathian mountains into the central Polish uplands.



    Major Eastern European Linguistic Groups Between 300 and 200 BC.




    __Nadarai (Naharvali, Naharvales, Nahanarvali, or Nahanarvalos)___________________________
    Tacitus provides several important bits of information that may aid in defining the tribal Nahanarvali. First, Tacitus tells us that they were members of the Lugiones (lugii) confederation with a religious center identified as an ancient sacred grove. He also informs us that this sacred grove was serviced by male priests dressed in female garb, and was dedicated to twin deities. The twin-god ideology is a relatively common Indo-European manifestation. For example one may note the Vedic Ashwini Kumaras or the twin-horsemen-gods from the Rigveda, that represent the shining sunrise and sunset, appearing just before dawn or dusk, on abstracted horseback bringing rewards to men and averting misfortune and sickness.
    Although one may offer a long list of similar cases, of special interest to our current inquiry is the Lithuanian myth of twin gods referred to as the Asvieniai. The Asvieniai, or in Old Lithuanian Asvienis, were horsemen betrothed to the sun, one symbolized by a white horse for sunrise, and the other a black horse; for sunset. The similarity of the Asvienis in name and myth, to the Vedic Ashwini, indicates that its inclusion within western Baltic cosmology is of great antiquity. Moreover, this myth is similar to the twin Latvian horse gods, which on a larger scale are tied to solar seasons. In turn these myths are in fact analogous to the Greek Dioscuri. Of course the Dioscuri were the twin sons of Zeus; Kastor and Polydeukes who may be better known by their Latin names of Castor and Pollux.

    As with the twin-gods, the Indo-European concept of the sacred grove as a symbol of constitutional authority and national identity is a relatively common feature found throughout central Europe and the Pagan Baltic. In Courland for example the local nobility preserved pre-Christian traditions associated with three such religious sites well into the 16th century. These and many others have been documented in local folklore, historic records, and historic maps. For example an interesting description of rituals practised at one such sacred grove in Courland was written by Reinhold Lubenau, a traveler that visited the area in the Christmas of 1586. Again, of special interest is that these sacred groves were referred to as ‘Elka’ or ‘Alkas.’ In fact, the in Old Lithuanian elkas or alká literally means 'holy grove.' The similarity between the Baltic expressions and Tacitus’ ‘Alcis,’ as the name of the religious site he described, can by no means be entirely coincidental.

    Additionally, the mythic twin-gods found in the Lithuanian, Latvian, Greek, and even Vedic cosmologies, while anthropomorphized, were abstractions that directly related to specific celestial movements and seasonal change. This may be behind Tacitus’ statement that within the sacred grove, there was no image or symbol of the twin-gods themselves. Finally, another parallel between the Latin and Greek Castor and Pollux cults and the West Baltic Asvienis is the veneration of youth and brotherhood. Again, Tacitus mentioned these features as central to the Alcis or sacred grove worship.

    Herein the tribal name Naharvali, Naharvales, Nahanarvali, or Nahanarvalos have been reconstructed as Nadarai, based on West Baltic. This was achieved through the root word Nahanar- (pronounced NAH-anar- or NAH-adar-) followed by the -vales suffix. This indecates that Naharvales, Nahanarvali, or Nahanarvalos may have been the name of a tribal district rather than a tribal name per se. Thus, Nahanar- or Nahadar- may be compared to the historic Old Prussian tribal name Nadra and the associated Nadruwa district. By extension Nadruwa may be expressed as Nadra-gales or possibly Nadar-vales. Historically, the Nadra were both a large clan and tribe recorded by Peter of Dusburg in the 13th century, as occuping the northern most portion of East Prussia. Its possible that the etymology of both Tacitus’ Nahanar- and the East Prussian Nadra may be traced to a common source that includes the Old Prussian nadir, meaning 'to guard' or 'protect.'

    One may also see in the –vales suffix an early form closely related to the Old Prussian walstis or Lithuanian valstija, which simply means ‘the state, country' or 'land.’ This form can be found in a number of Medieval examples that include; Latgale or Lætgale (meaning 'land of the Lett') and Zemgale or Ziemgala (meaning Lower-land). Thus, we may find Tacitus’ Naharvali, Naharvales, Nahanarvali, or Nahanarvalos as meaning ‘land of the Nahar.’ Nonetheless, the geographic home of the tribal Nadarai may ultimately be found in northern Masovia, southern Masuria, and Palenke; included within the watershed of the Narew River drainage. The Polish Narew River is also known in Lithuanian as the Naura which displays an uncanny similarity to both the East Prussian Nadra and Tacitus’ Nahanar-. Therefore one may suggest, that Nadra was a toponym, from which the Naura River also received its name. Overall, this may provide for the setting for the pre-Roman Iron Age Nahanarvali, somewhere east of the Vistula and immediately south of East Prussia.


    __Arrai (Hari/Harios)___________________________
    In Germania Tacitus tells us that the Arrai (Hari) were the first of the Lugiones (Lugii people) and compared to those listed, they had greater vigor. The implication seems that the Arwyai where more numerous and were able to field armies that were often successful. As well, their placement on Tacitus’ list suggests that the Arrai occupied the central uplands immediately north of the upper Vistula valley. Furthermore, Tacitus says they used both art and opportunity to enhance their ferocity making themselves nearly irresistible in battle, when confronted by those unfamiliar with their aspect. Thus, with blacked shields and darkened bodies they gathered in the pitch-black of night to fight as a ghastly army of ghosts that incited great fear. Other that this Classical sources remain silent as far as the Arrai are concerned.

    __Helveconas and Kelisios___________________________
    The Helveconas appear to have occupied the area around the confluences of the Oder, Notec, and Warta rivers. However, about the same time that the Belgae and Bastarnae tribes began to migrate towards the west and east, respectively, part of the Helveconas seemed to have shifted southwest. They may have hit the Elbe between Dresden and Wittenberg, then moved on to the Main and later the upper Rhine, only to become the Helvetii. On the other hand, the Helveconas seemed to have remained in what is now modern Poland. Another tribe mentioned by Tacitus in Germania was the Helisios/Kelisios. It is likely they were situated immediately to the east of the Helveconas, within the Warta drainage system, in the vicinity of Kalisz. Today many scholars dispute a connection between the Helisios, Ptolemy's Calisia, and historic Kalisz, but in truth these agreements are largely unsupported. Recent archaeological survey and excavation around Kalisz indicates that this area was densely occupied from the 4th century BC to about AD 100.

    __Manimoi/Omanoi, Diduni, and Buri___________________________
    Many of the Celtic settlements in Lower Silesia were abandoned soon after 120 BC. This seems to roughly correspond to part of the 100 mile wide Vacare Agros mentioned in Book 4 of Caesar's Gallic War. On the other hand with the steady political decline of the east Celts, and retraction of the Latene Culture, Upper Silesia was increasingly pulled into the sphere of the Przeworsk Culture. This archaeological construct may be characterized as pastorally based tribal society, without an established capital, that was based on small scattered unfortified farmsteads and hamlets. Although written in the early 2nd century AD, form Ptolemy's Geographia we learn that Upper Silesia was occupied by the Buri, Manimoi/Omanoi and Didunoi tribes, who were associated with the Lugii confederation and Lugidunum, apparently an important settlement. The Didunoi or Diduni tribal name may represent Greek and Latin forms of the Celtic Dī dunos; meaning 'those of' or 'from the uplands.' In contrast the tribal name Omanoi or Omani may be similar to the Gaulish 'komantos' and mean ‘those who are equals.'

    __Wenetai (Vistulic Veneti), Sciri, and Hirri__________________________
    Our current understanding of the proto-historic Wenetai (Vistulic Veneti) is somewhat uneven. First, the classical useage is certainly both general and specific. For example, this term was indiscriminately used to denote Gaulish, Adriatic, and Vistulic expressions each seemingly independent and possessing an unclear etymological relationship. Speaking in less broad terms, Tacitus' tells us that the Vistulic Veneti lived between the Bastarnae and Phinnoi; yet the former tribe is often included within this ethnos while the latter certainly is not. Herein, a number of related tribes and cultural groups are included within this concept. In fact, the Peutinger Map, which often employs archaic terminology, seems to suggest that all the tribes of eastern Europe north of the Carpathians and northwest of the Black Sea were considered Wenetai.
    Our current understanding of the proto-historic Wenetai (Vistulic Veneti) is somewhat uneven. First, the classical useage is certainly both general and specific. For example, this term was indiscriminately used to denote Gaulish, Adriatic, and Vistulic expressions each seemingly independent and possessing an unclear etymological relationship. Speaking in less broad terms, Tacitus' tells us that the Vistulic Veneti lived between the Bastarnae and Phinnoi; yet the former tribe is often included within this ethnos while the latter certainly is not. Herein, a number of related tribes and cultural groups are included within this concept. In fact, the Peutinger Map, which often employs archaic terminology, seems to suggest that all the tribes of eastern Europe north of the Carpathians and northwest of the Black Sea were considered Wenetai.

    This inclusive or ethnic concept seems to be reinforced by the Old High German use of 'Winida,' and the Old English 'Winedas' or 'Wends,' a deeply rooted archaic useage similar to the Germanic Walha, that eventualy was applied to any nation that occupied the region to the east. A West Baltic association with the Vistulic Veneti may be found in the Old Prussian Wan- or the Lithuanian Vin- meaning to 'meander, wander,' or 'ramble;' or the Old Prussian Wandrai, rendered as 'those who migrate.' Thus, its assumed that Vistulic Veneti or Wenetai was a generic term suggesting a West Baltic ethnos, which in the context of eastern Europe, could be applied to the tribal elements associated with the Oksywie, Poienesti-Lukashevka, Pomeranian, Przeworsk cultures, West Balt Tumuli, and Zarubintsy cultures.

    On the one hand Pliny the Elder suggests that the tribal Sciri and Hirri were known as Vistulic Veneti. Although written in the mid 1st century AD, the Scirii can be dated as early as 230 BC, with the Bastarnae attack on the Greek colony of Oblia. The Scirii tribal name may be compared to the Old Prussian skirits; Lithuanian skaistus; and Latvian skaidrs, meaning clean, chaste, and pure. Therefore, Scirii or Skirai could have meant 'those who are pure,' demonstrating a West Baltic affiliation. Additionally, the tribal Hirri seem to represent a form similar to the Old Prussian Ari or Ariai, suggesting 'those that farm' or 'those that roam.'

    Although attempts have been made to contort a purely Germanic etymology for the Bastarnae, even the most casual observer may note the similarity with the Old Prussian bastweî, or Lithuanian bastūnas meaning ‘nomad, vagabond,’ and ‘ranger.’ Of course, these are derived from the Baltic root bast-, meaning to ‘wander, roam,’ and ‘range.’ From Ptolemy's Geographia, other tribal names that were associated with this region were the Galindai and Soudinoi/Sidonen; clearly the historic West Baltic Galindi and Sudovi/Yotvingi before they shifted northwest into East Prussia, in the late Roman and early Germanic iron ages. Finally turning west, the Lugiones (Lugii) of central Poland, Æstai (Aesti) of East Prussia, and Læmowes (Lemovii) of Pomerania, given a West Baltic affiliation, one may include these elements within a greater Vistulic Veneti ethnos.


    __Budinjoi (Budini)__________________________
    The proto-history of the tribal Budinjoi (Budini) is rather obscure. However, Herodotus’ Histories tell us that in the mid 5th century BC they were a large and numerous nation, that lived in a well forested land where there was an enormous marsh. We also learn that they lived among the Geloni, at Gelonus, the latter's huge fortified capital. Fortunately, Gelonus has been identified as the site of Bilske Horodyshche, in Poltava Region of the Eastern Ukraine, near the village of Bilske. Armed with this and the general time frame provided by Herodotus, we may deduce that the Budini were directly associated with the Milograd or Pidhirtsi culture. The extent of this archaeological complex fits the merger geographic references provided by Herodotus; centered upon the woodlands as demarcated by the steppes and the Pripet Marsh of the northwestern Ukraine.
    Interestingly, events and processes that shaped the proto-history of this region paralleled those that occurred farther south and west. Early in the 3rd century BC the Pidhirtsi culture was brought to an abrupt end due to another large scale tribal migration linked with the Pomeranian-Przeworsk complex to the west. This process also appears to be associated with wide spread abandonments of earlier communities with some of these populations resettling around the Greek Black Sea colonies. The Budini seem to have been both pushed east and assimilated under the auspices of the Zarubintsy Culture, which represented the tribal Skirai (Scirii). From their base in the general area of Kiev the Scirii, along with the Bastarnae further south, participated in a number of migrations and attacks into southeast Europe and the eastern Ukraine. However, by the end of the Europa Barbarorum II time frame, the Scirii had largely confined their military adventures to the Ukraine.

    In broad terms the etymology of the tribal names addressed above may also be used to suggest an ethnic affiliation. The Budinjoi can be compared to the Old Prussian budit; Lithuanian budinti; Latvian budīt; Old Church Slavonic budėti; Polish Budzić; Russian budit; Sanskrit bódhati; and Hindustani Buddha, meaning to ‘wake’ or ‘rise up.’ Thus, the earler Budinjoi or Budini may have meant 'those that rise up,' and additionally indicates a very significant Balto-Slavic affiliation. On the other hand the Scirii tribal name can be compared to the Old Prussian skirits; Lithuanian skaistus; and Latvian skaidrs, meaning clean, chaste, and pure. Therefore, Scirii or Skirai could have meant 'those who are pure,' which also demonstrates a clear western Baltic connection.


    __Neurjoi (Neuri)__________________________

    Given the current state of understanding the proto-history of the tribal Neurjoi (Neuri) is difficult to discern or assess. In Herodotus’ Histories we find that by the mid 5th century BC the Neuri lived beyond, or north of the Budini, Geloni, and Scythes. Furthermore, the site of Gelonus has been located in the Poltava Region, near the village of Bilske. Therefore, the tribal Geloni were centered on the Vorksla, Sula, Desna and Sejm river valleys of the Eastern Ukraine. Based on this, the Geloni can be associated with the Sula and Vorksla archaeological groups, while the Budini are roughly linked to the Milograd or Pidhirtsi culture. We also learn from Herodotus that the Neuri were near neighbors of the Androphagi; a Greek attempt to somewhat transliterate the Iranian term Mardxvāra (Mordvins), used for the Uralic Erzya and Moksha people that lived along the Volga, east of Moscow. Additionally, a 11th century Russian chronicle mentioned a large district called Neroma located in the area east of Latvia.
    In archaeological terms the Medieval Neroma district, is represented by the Early Iron Age Plain Pottery Culture, wherein the material assemblage is relatively indivisible from that found in the Smolensk, Moscow, Tula, Kaluga, and Brjansk areas to the east. The hallmark of this culture is the fortified hill-top village of which several hundred sites that date to the Early Iron Age have been identified in this area. They appear to form clusters of five to ten settlements that are individually spaced a distance of about five km. Several of these community clusters are known from the upper Oka river valley and the associated Zhizdra, Ugra, Upa, and Nara drainages. A number of other communities of this type are grouped along the Protva River southwest of Moscow, as well as around Smolensk, Vitebsk, Minsk, and Homel. These sites are fortified with a rampart and ditch that either partially or entirely enclose an oval, elliptical, triangular, or rectangular shaped area of around 100 to 500 m², with as many as ten residential structures. The one to two meter high ramparts were built of stone, earth, or baked clay interlaced and covered with wood upon which a two meter high timber wall was constructed. The exterrior ditch often were three to seven meters deep and between 10 and 15 meters wide.

    With the construction of a lower rampart enclosure designed to hold livestock, some settlements took on the aspect of the motte and bailey castle. This type of defensive architecture and site structure is clearly the forerunner of the Gord, which is a widespread and enduring hallmark of the historic Slavic culture. Another important aspect of this culture was the extensive yet low-level tool industry that relied on bone and stone; as well as localized bronze jewelry production. With the introduction of bog Iron extraction techniques the use of Iron tools and weapons had increase, but would not entirely replace those made of less durable materials until the 1st centuries AD. By the middle of the 3rd century BC the western aspect of this common culture had differentiated only slightly from the eastern expression becoming the Brushed Pottery and Upper Oka cultures, respectively. On face value, other than changes in the predominant ceramic ware types, these cultures remained very similar. However, it is also evident that these subtle changes also underlie the cultural process whereby the genesis of an incipient Slavic ethnos was established.



    Lugiones and Wenetai/Veneti Tribes Between 200 and 100 BC.


    Last edited by cmacq; 02-27-2011 at 18:08.
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    Herein events and rations daily birth the labors of freedom.

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    Bruadair a'Bruaisan Member cmacq's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    The Lugiones: A Culture History





    An Introduction

    The history of the Lugiones confederation is hindered only by the paucity of a written account. Therefore, in order to reconstruct a narrative of it's prehistory we must largely depend upon archaeology, a sub-discipline of anthropology. Herein, as prolog this story of conflict and ultimate assimilation begins with the European Iron Age, and a climate favorable for both agricultural and pastoral expansion. The subsequent spike in demographic growth seems to have inspired increased attacks by steppe nomads and directly resulted in what may be considered the first urban centers, in the region known today as Poland and northeastern Germany. Although the vast majority of the population remained dispersed across the landscape in small farmsteads and hamlets, the best examples of this selective aggregation are the large fortified settlements of Sobiejuchy, Senftenberg, Biskupin and Buch. They reflect a relatively high degree of community planning and engineering, as displayed by their location, general layout, and use of an intricate form of defensive architecture. Collectively, both the rural and urban settlements, and the associated material assemblages are referred to as Lusatian Culture.


    The Hallstatt, Lusatian, and Pomeranian cultures

    Although not otherwise reflected, funerary offerings and the associated iconography indicate the emergence of an equestrian class that paid considerable attention to the ways and means of trade and industry to further the prosecution of war. Of course, by extension this infers that warfare played a significant role in the early Iron Age, and thus arose the need of a managerial elite. While not common, a representative group of warrior burials at Gorszewice, a Lusatian cemetery near the fortified settlement at Komorów, reveal a wide array of weapons of late Hallstatt design. These included spears, swords, daggers, and axes, as well as evidence of head and body armor. Incised decoration on ceramic funerary vessels also depicts the use of horse drawn chariots and cavalry. Additional evidence of the procurement, maintenance, and use of horses has been found in burials and household trash. On the other hand, structures grouped around ceramic kilns and smelting furnaces, along with stone moulds and a host of glass, bronze, and iron artifacts, implies craft speculation. It also signifies a thriving industry engaged in the local manufacture of arms, armaments, tools, and items of personal adornment. Furthermore Baltic amber, late Hallstatt weapons and armor, as well as imported exotic items made in Denmark, Italy, Greece, and Scythia; demonstrate that some of the more important Lusatian settlements were part of a trading network that operated throughout much of central Europe.

    The relevance of the Lusatian Culture to the later Lugiones polity, is threefold. First, it clearly demonstrates the requisite demography, technology, and resources, as well as a cultural predisposition, necessary for population aggregation. Secondly, the fortified Lusatian settlements and the rise of a warrior class, as a response to the proposed intrusive attacks of steppe nomads, establish a need for a comprehensive strategy of defense. Finally, the presence of a few relatively large and well fortified villages, amidst a sea of small rural settlements without defenses indicates a certain degree of social stratification. However, the lack of differentiation in domestic architecture also suggests that higher levels of class distinction and the ability to establish large political networks, were all but absent. These are themes to be revisited in greater detail when we provide more substance to the shadow that is the story of the Lugiones.

    Within this context, by the late 8th century BC, or at about the time the first fortified Lusatian villages were established, a large concentration of small dispersed settlements situated along the wide coastal strip between the mouth of the Vistula and the Oder rivers began to reflect a common set of traits. In archaeological terms these sites would become known as the Pomeranian Culture. However, in truth this diagnostic set of traits were relatively common before, and for all intents and purposes, were identical to those that defined the Lusatian Culture. That is with the notable exception of the extensive cemeteries and large fortified villages. Thus, the small dispersed farmsteads and modest burial areas of Pomeranian complex, may be yet another example of contrasting scales, whereby the later represents a less sophisticate basal stratum, while the former the upper end of societal stratification. Nonetheless, tree-ring dates indicate that all of the large fortified villages of the Lusatain Culture were abandoned by 500 BC, while the proliferation of small Pomeranian farmsteads continued unabated throughout Poland, as far as the western Ukraine and Belarus.

    Reliable explanations why the Lusatain Culture failed, and was replaced by the Pomeranian Culture are at best fleeting. Some claim that the large fortified sites were abandoned due to raids by steppe peoples. However, this might seem a tad odd, since increased warfare was initially offered as one of the underlying causes for population aggregation and class differentiation, in the first place. Others attempt to demonstrate an oscillation to a slightly cooler climate, ergo decreasing agricultural productivity; the basis of the early Iron Age economy. While there were changes in the location of farmsteads and hamlets, there was no apparent decrease in the regional population; as the number of Pomeranian settlements actually witnessed a sizable increase. Although the environment may have been a factor, if the rapid population growth Europe experienced between the early 7th and 1st century BC is any indication, the climatic regime of this period was relatively stable, and might best be described as ideal.

    Moreover, it may be obvious to even the most casual observer that the demise of the large fortified Lusatain settlements represents nothing more than the removal of an overt example of social stratification. In this respect the benefits of a hierarchy may have been outstripped by the escalating costs imposed by a ruling elite, who were in due course rejected by the basal society at-large. As well, a shift towards pastoralism, adoption of a defensive strategy based on local levies, and the elimination of targets that inherently drew or supported external attacks may have offered additional advantages. Regardless, the Pomeranian Culture denotes the genesis of the tribal elements that later comprised the Lugiones confederation.

    Face Urns, Endless Warfare, and the La Tene Culture


    The next chapter in the story of the Lugiones confederation is embedded in the tumults of territorial conquest and the fashioning of a society designed to endure external threat and a state of nearly constant war. In the upland valleys and forests of southeastern France, Switzerland, southern Germany, and Austria, at about the same time the Pomeranian Culture and its affiliates coalesced in Poland and northeast Germany, another important ethnos emerged. Today archaeologists refer to the sites and artifacts of this ethnic expression as the late Hallstatt and La Tene cultures. In more precise terms, this expression can briefly be described as a group of agriculturally based tribal communities organized as feudalistic societies that shared a common language and set of deeply rooted oral, artistic, legal, spiritual, and militaristic traditions. These tribes were ruled by the warrior-elite, who were enabled by their symbiotic relationship with artisans, merchants, and craftsmen. In turn these classes were supported and maintained by a vast system of indenture and other forms of servitude, which were informally administered by an indiscrete body of religious and secular magistrates. Overall, to serve as tribal capitals, provide the requisite logistics of the aristocracy, and symbolize the extent and authority the body politic, the La Tene Culture was anchored by a network of large fortified towns, called Oppida.

    Collectively, the people of these tribes called themselves Celts, and it was not long before Europe felt their might. Again increased agricultural productivity throughout the 6th and early 5th century BC, fueled by technological advance and an optimum climate, resulted in explosive population growth and a heightened demand for new land. To satisfy this need they harnessed the dynamic potential of disinherited aristocratic youth and their retainers, with the promise that war would achieve both enterprise and upward social mobility. This policy is embodied in the well known Gallic axiom, that all legal rights and privilege can only be derived from courage and the sword. It seems success was quickly realized, as by 600 BC they had subjugated much of central Gaul, and soon large scale intrusions followed into Iberia, northern Italy, southern Germany, and Bohemia. Then, in the last decades of the 5th century, these Celts decisively defeated the Etruscans, destroying their political unity, and by 390 BC they even humiliated the burgeoning Roman state by capturing their capital and holding it for ransom. In the next few years Celtic tribes based in Austria began to expand eastward down the Danube, while those in Bohemia and Moravia crossed into Slovakia and Silesia, and within a half century they had craved out new homes throughout the Balkans and southern Poland. But the tribes of the Pomeranian Culture were also on the move, and it was under these circumstances that the Celts came into direct contact with the peoples of the Lugiones confederation.

    One such tribe was the Helveconas, whose western branch may be better known as the Helvetii. In the 4th century BC, after the Pomeranian Culture had become firmly entrenched in northeastern Poland, it spread into Prussia, Lesser Poland, Silesia, and Masovia due to tribal migration. Ostensively it seems that as this process commenced, the Helveconas spelt, with an eastern element slowly shifting southeast into Lesser Poland, and a western prong that moved southwest by stages. As Tacitus informs, the western branch or Helvetii settled in the area bounded by the Main and Rhine rivers, as well as the Celtic Boii and Hercynian Forest. Thereafter, Ptolemy and Posidonius imply that the Helveti, enticed by the allure of gold, eventually abandoned this realm for the upper reaches of the Rhine. While it was there, they meet and some joined the enormously unwieldy and ill-fated expedition of the Cimbri and Teutones, the majority of the Helvetii were soon on-the-move again, and on this occasion they settled in western Switzerland. The Helvetii provide a number of insights into the general nature of both the societies of La Tene and Pomeranian cultures. Although it’s clear they originated beyond the initial La Tene sphere, by the 1st century BC, the tribal Helvetii in many respects appear to have been fully integrated into the fabric of the Gran Celteria. This alone demonstrates that tribal identities were somewhat fluid and not solely based on longstanding bonds of kinship. It also underscores the relative ease in which one group could exchange language and custom for a favorable political relationship and greater security.

    Even so, the manner in which societies self-conceptualize and regulate morality seems deeply ingrained in a primal identity that is often difficult to alter. It appears that Helvetii jurisprudence may have preserved a relic that hearken to their tribal origin and an affinity to the society represented by the Pomeranian and latter Przeworsk cultures. This is found in the curious case of a nobleman named Orgetorix, who over a number of years conspired with two Gallic leaders, to convince the Helvetii and several neighboring tribes to migrate from Switzerland, with the purpose of seizing power and uniting central Gaul by means of intimidation and a nearly-bloodless coup. The details of this case or its ultimate disposition are not of consequence here, as immediately after the issue was resolved the Helvetii implemented the original plan. This indicates that the reason the Helvetii magistrates attempted to try and execute Orgetorix, was only because they were incensed that he intended to have himself appointed to an office, which was common among Celts, that they and their countrymen would simply not tolerate. Because of the close relationship between the tribes of the Suebi and Lugiones confederations, similar examples concerning this attitude towards the nature and authority of kingship involve Marbodius, Catualda, and Arminius. Because they attempted to supercede the authority of lesser nobles and the common assembly, as well as accumulate what was considered too much power; in turn each was deposed when opportunity presented.

    In fact, due to proximity and a common inspiration, the Suebi and Lugiones confederations appear to have been organized along similar lines. Today these tribes are represented by the archaeological constructs called the Jastof and Przeworsk cultures, respectively. Although at some early stage their basic linguistic and oral traditions diverged and thus became dissimilar, both groups can be characterized as pastorally based tribal communities that were organized as large egalitarian collectives with a somewhat common set of legal, religious, and militaristic customs. These tribes were ruled by clan affiliation and temporary charismatic leaders that were maintained by small groups of heavily-armed retainers and local craft-specialist. However, by virtue of their numbers, real authority and the power to act, as well as the cause and course of indenture was held by the general citizenry, whom were but common freemen, and formed the overwhelming bulk of the populous. Overall, these people lived in small scattered farmsteads and hamlets, preferred not to have established capitals, and in no way used stone, timber, ditch, or mound to enhance the defense of their homes. In this order, their most important pursuits were tied to war and the maintenance of their cattle herds, the chief reasons they frequently changed the locations of their settlements. Thus, their dispersed communities were connected by an ever changing network of paths, trails, and informal roads that crossed countless rivers and streams, as well as vast tracts of forest and swamp.

    We are told that between the 3rd to 1st centuries BC, the preparation and conduct of endless war became increasingly central to all of the peoples of greater Germania, including the tribes of the Lugiones polity. Of course the intensity of these wars ranged from simple clan feuds, petty rivalries, and the ubiquitous cattle raid; to long drawn-out massive multi-tribal campaigns designed to seize territory and resources. Due to the growing demand made by the Mediterranean markets, by the late 2nd century BC two of the most lucrative reasons wars were fought was over the control of the amber roads and slaves. Concerning the preparation for war, Caesar and Tacitus recall a type of common levy used by the Suebi tribes, that seems to closely correspond to the archaeology of both the Jastof and Przeworsk cultures. Hereby, every year each populated district within a tribal area was assigned to provide an equal number of warriors, allbeit 100 or 1000, to serve as the common levy. A comparable number of households within these districts were also tasked with the support of these troops throughout the course of the year. Furthermore, it appears that from year to year these duties were rotated throughout the populous, so that ‘neither the pursuit of war nor subsistence were ever neglected.’

    As for the conduct of war, the sources also tell us that from the outset warriors of the common levy were made war-ready and battle-harden by the very nature of their rustic society and the challenges to survival, presented daily by the environment in which they lived. In regards to more intangible aspects, they were reported to have possessed an unmatched ferocity in battle and often with a seemingly-single mind, were imperious to hardship or reversal. As tacticians they were skilled in the use of terrain and proved competent in the meeting engagement, raid, or ambush, yet were often found lacking when it came to the set-piece battle. From the texts and excavated warriors burials of this period, we learn that the warriors of the common levy were simply armed with a spear, a pair of javelins, and shield; while dressed in nothing more than a woolen cloak, that also served as a bed roll. However, burials of far better armed warriors have been found, including well-made swords, spears, helmets, shields, and body armor of Celtic design; these internments no doubt represent members of the war-leader’s retinue. However, arms recovered from warrior burials that date to the 1st century BC also demonstrate a wider range of weapons were being used, and that troops were formally being organized around and trained in the use of specific weapon sets. This period also seems to have witnessed a general increase in the use of weapons, and due to the variety of type and source of manufacture, one may also question the origins of many of those that employed them.

    The Early Przeworsk and Oksywie Cultures


    Within the guise of the Przeworsk culture, the principle tribes and related groups that composed the Lugiones confederation may have formed by the early 3rd century BC. As a theoretical reconstruction these included the Didunas, Harios, Helveconas, Manimos, and Helisios. The Lemovii seem to have occupied the Baltic coast between the mouths of the Oder and Vistula rivers, and increased trade of Baltic amber for Cimbric bronze jewelry, resulted in a local variant of the Przeworsk culture, called the Oksywie culture. Between the lower Vistula and Nemunas rivers elements the Bur, Sidonen, Galindai, and Nahanarvali tribes appear to have incorporated to represent the Nidzica group. Possibly due to Celtic expansion into the Balkans, at about the same time, several related tribes abandoned the middle Vistula, shifted into the northern Ukraine, and formed the Sciri confederation. The Peucini, Atmonen, and elements of the Sidonen also appear to have quit southeastern Poland and by the middle 3rd century BC were well established in Galicia and Bukovina, becoming the historic Bastarnae confederation. In anthropological terms the polities of the Sciri and Bastarnae were confirmed by local expressions of the Przeworsk Culture called the Zarubintsy and Poienesti-Lukashevka archaeological groups, respectively. Yet, the tribes of the Bastarnae and Sciri only fully emerged onto the world stage around 230 BC when they beset and captured the Greek colony of Olbia. Throughout the 2nd century BC the tribes of the Bastarnae confederation, either as invaders or mercenaries, were militarily active in the lower Danube Basin and the Balkans, earning the reputation as the bravest of all nation. In fact, at this time the Peucini migrated south and established themselves on the large southern-most island in the huge delta of the Danube.

    Collectively the ethnicity of the tribes mentioned above, which actually represent by the various aspects of the Przeworsk construct, remain unclear. However, the similarities with possible historic equivalents; as found in the Lemovii (Læmonii), Bur (Barta), Sidonen (Suduva), Galindai (Galinda), and Nahanarvali (Nadruva) tribal names, suggest a western Baltic linguistic affiliation. The same may be deduced by the Didunas, Harios, Helveconas, Manimos, and Helisios tribal names, yet with a somewhat closer relationship to the languages used by the Celt and Belgae peoples. The use of Lugii, Lugiones, or Lougoi to signify the confederates suggest a basic relationship with a deity called Lugus in Gualish; elements of which may also be found in Old Prussian and Lithuanian pagan gods Lauksargis, Laukamat, Laukpatis, and Laukų. Interestingly in Gaulish myth Lugus was paired to the Roman god Mercury, and supplied with an analogous epithet meaning, skilled in all arts. Furthermore, the Romans indecate that Lugus, in one form or another, was the most revered deity in Gaul and Germania, and claim he was the patron of trade, commerce, and the inventor of all arts and crafts. Another possible western Baltic connection with the Lugiones may be found in the role of Lugus in certifying oaths, as in the Old Irish luige, and Brythonic lugio or llw. Herein, the Old Prussian term laūks, meaning a bounded area, was also used to denote a tribal affiliation, and given its origin may indirectly refer to the oaths that bind communities. The root words used for the Sciri and Bastarnae tribes may be found in the Lithuanian skiriú and Old Prussian Bastweî, meaning to separate and thrust through, respectively. Finally, it’s also feasible that the Peucini and Atmonen tribal names may symbolize Greek and Latin renderings of the Baltic deities Purkūnas and Auљrinė. However, Ptolemy tells us that the Peucini took their name from the Island of Peuke in the delta of the Danube.

    Turning to more corporeal facets, archaeological surveys and excavations conducted in the vicinity of the modern Polish city of Kalisz provide a wealth of information about the Late pre-Roman Iron Age (LpRIA). In all about 200 late La Tene and early Roman period loci were recorded and based on their attributes these represent residential or mortuary sites, as well as isolated hoards. Of these, three residential sites located approximately five Km south of Kalisz and west of the Prosna River, that surround a large LpRIA cemetery near Piwonice provide important insights into the composition and structure of early Przeworsk Culture communities. These settlements consist of loose yet discrete clusters of habitation structures, as well as byres, storage sheds, and workshops that appear to represent hamlets or small villages that lack any form of defensive architecture. Extramural features such as storage pits, hearths, ovens, kilns, and smelting furnaces were often scattered around the parameter of the settlement. The long walls of the habitation structures were generally orientated along a east-west axis with an entry facing south. Architecturally, habitation structures were typically relatively small rectangular pithouses, with floor areas that covered about 12 to 48 m2. The floor of pithouses ranged from one to 1.5 m below the occupational ground surface. Overall, these structures were timber-framed with waddle-and-daub walls, and steeply pitched roofs. Floor features include storage pits, formal hearths, as well as small ovens and smelting furnaces. Overall, these archaeological findings are similar and provide great credence to the descriptions of settlements associated with the Suebi and Lugii confederations, submitted by Caesar and Tacitus.


    Example of a Lugiones Settlement Occupied in the 2nd Century BC.

    A large number and variety of LpRIA artifacts were recovered from the excavations outlined above. These included a huge collection of locally hand-made pottery that was associated with either a residential, processing, or ritual context. In addition, a large number of perishable artifacts were recovered, made of carbonized wood, bone, and horn. These can potentially provide important information about the local environment, economy, and technology; as well as the natural faunal and floral resources used by the LpRIA culture. Another important artifact category includes manufacturing byproduct, such as slag or debitage, which was associated with the processing of bronze and silver artifacts; as well as glass bowls, and beads. Evidence of a diverse economy can be surmised from the impression of rye, wheat, barley, oats, and millet found on loom weights. Additional evidence of these cereals include carbonized remains found in a wide-range of contexts. Domesticated faunal remains included cattle, sheep, pig, goat, dog, and horse bones. While undomesticated types were rather under represented they consisted of stag, deer, boar, beaver, bear, elk, wild geese, and duck. Ceramic loom weights and carpentry tools suggest household-based textual and wood craft production. The only evidence of specialized production apparently were several workshops used as tanneries, furriers, and smithys. The presence of wheel-made La Tene pottery, Roman and Celtic coins, imported glass, silver, and bronze artifacts demonstrated trade with communities located to the south and southwest.

    Although the Przeworsk Culture continued until the 4th century AD, by the beginning of the current era it had experienced significant change. In fact the archaeological attributes and textual references indicate that the western Baltic character reached an apogee around the mid 1st century BC then rapidly declined. Thereafter, the nature of change within the Przeworsk Culture became increasingly influenced by the Suebi tribes. The causes of this seem to be linked to a number of interrelated factors initially tied to the collapse of the La Tene Culture and the Suebi confederation's rise to prominence. Firstly, while Celtic expansion appears to have checked Germanic aggression, in the 3rd century BC a number of Belgae tribes seized the initiative, crossed the Rhine, and conquered a large portion of northeastern Gaul. At about the same time a number of important Celtic tribes embroiled themselves in a long series of wars in Italy that eventually claimed an enormous toll. Next, a resurgent Rome decisively defeated the united Gallic confederation under the leadership of the Arverni. Then, the Cimbric migration rampaged throughout Western Europe in the late 2nd century BC, inflecting untold hardship and ruin. Many of the Celtic Oppida in southern Germany were burned at this time and despite the claim that the Boii held out against the invaders, they were significantly reduced and soon after began to abandon Bohemia. The net result of these reversals was that political unity in Gaul was shattered, with the Celtic tribes weakened and in disarray civil strife followed, diverting resources once dedicated to expansion and maintenance of the Gran Celteria, to the defense of the homeland. However, it seems evident that only Rome and the reconstituted Suebi confederation would take advantage of this distress.



    Major Archaeological Cultures and Groups of Eastern Europe Around 100 BC.




    The Rise of the Early Swabians


    In regards to the Suebi, to explain we must turn to the area around Mecklenburg, Hamburg, and Luneburg, were it is evident that the Ripdorf phase of the Jastorf Culture represents the genesis of the tribal Irminones. Thus, soon after the emergence of the Suebi confederation may also be expected around 300 BC. This is only remarkable in that up to this point the Jastorf expression could be viewed simply as yet another variant or group of the much larger Pomeranian and Przeworsk cultures. Additionally, following significant growth between 600 and 300 BC, a steady population decline was detected after the 4th century BC. This process may in part be indirectly due to the large-scale Belgic migrations into northeastern Gaul. Nevertheless, large areas of northeastern Germany were effectively abandoned sometime shortly after 120 BC. These abandonments and the beginning of the Seedorf phase were no doubt connected to the passage of the massive Cimbric migration. Immediately following the abandonments, new settlements were established, particularly between Hamburg and Lüneburg. Here we find the sudden appearance of differentiated female burials; and the spur, spear, sword, and shield interned with males as funerary gifts. These demographic changes and the appearance of weapon burials suggest the rapid emergence of a militaristic community where the use of the lance and competent horsemanship became a defining cultural attribute.

    With a slightly cooler and dryer climate, some have suggested that the tribes of the lower Elbe region were rejuvenated in part by a steady flow of people from northern Scandinavia. As this process goes beyond the scope of the current study, it may be suffice to propose that as these small migrating groups gathered into larger entities, they coalesced with native populations to form new identities, which soon proved extremely aggressive. When this region entered onto the historic stage we find elements of the Suebi confederation either fully engaged in wars of territorial expansion, or serving as mercenaries in similar conflicts. By the end of the 1st century BC the Suebi confederation had expanded to encompass most of what today is modern Germany east of the Rhine and Bohemia. Within a few decades Suebi tribes, in this case collectively called Vandals and Goths, gained control of Pomerania and East Prussia. This effectively marked the end of the Oksywie and genesis of the Wielbark cultures, a process which was achieved through open warfare, direct migration, infiltration, and acculturation. This also actively reduced the authority of the Lugiones polity. In attempts to counter these moves the Lugiones confederation allied with Rome and political factions that had been excised from the Suebi confederation. However, this proved to be of no apparent avail. Thus, by the beginning of the 2nd century AD, although the Przeworsk Culture continued in name, its character and by extension the nature of Lugiones confederation, had significantly changed to became increasingly dominated by elements associated with various Suebian tribes.



    Last edited by cmacq; 12-30-2010 at 11:07.
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    Society and Political Structure of the Lugiones





    An Introduction

    The following reconstruction is based on the descriptions of early Germanic social and political organization as provided in Caesar's Gallic War and Tacitus' Germania, Histories, and Annals. Of course this is tempered by the well established view of Indo-European societies as hierarchical and having three tiers. These tiers were the relative small noble and indentured classes, followed by a vast peasantry. In general, the structure of any given Indo-European ethnos was also subdivided by familial and political affiliations, which in turn were often defined by social or economic factors. Nonetheless, at the lowest level these represented extended clans, septs, and individual families whereby marriage and birth determined patrilineal decent groups. Thus a lineage was the demographic building blocks upon which a given society was ordered, from the rural household to the tribe. Descriptions of the political and military offices associated with the tribal Lugiones are offered below.

    Lugioperôni
    (Lugiones Society)

    Due in part to proximity and a common inspiration, the Lugoperônai (LEWK-opeh-row-naye), meaning the overall society of the Lugiones, as well as Swaboz, appear to have been organized along similar lines. Today these polities are represented by the archaeological constructs called the Pomeranian-Przeworsk and Jastof cultures, respectively. Although at some stage their linguistic and oral traditions diverged and thus became dissimilar, both groups can be characterized as pastorally based tribal communities that were organized as large egalitarian collectives with a somewhat common set of legal, religious, and militaristic traditions. These tribes were ruled by clan affiliation and temporary civil and charismatic military leaders that were maintained by small groups of heavily-armed retainers and local craft-specialist. However, by virtue of their numbers, real authority and the power to act, as well as the cause and course of indenture was held by the general citizenry, whom were but common freemen, and formed the overwhelming bulk of the populous.

    The Lugiones people lived in small scattered Laugai (LEWG-aye [farmsteads]) and Kaimai (KAHY-maye [hamlets]). Each small self contained cluster of botanai (BOTAH-naye [homes]), stegai (STEH-gaye [sheds]), kalanai (KALAH-naye [barns and byres]), kaminai (KAMY-naye [forges]) and dilibutanai (dilly-BOW-tah-naye [shops]) represented the abode and property of several extended families, with one or more clan affiliations. While daily domestic activities were supervised by a Towas (TOH-wahs [father, mayor]) and Botatawas (botah-TAH-wahs [an assembly of common elders]), several neighboring settlements formed administrative groups or districts. In turn, several nearby districts formed subtribes, then tribes, and ulimately the tribal confederation. Collectively, the Lugiones preferred not to have established towns or princely capitals, nor did they use timber, ditch, stone, or mound to enhance the defense of their settlements. In this order, their most important pursuits were tied to war and the maintenance of their peku kaimenoi (cattle herds), the chief reasons they frequently changed the locations of their settlements. Thus, their dispersed communities were connected by an ever changing network of paths, trails, and informal roads that crossed countless rivers and streams, as well as vast tracts of forest, swamp, uplands, and grassy plains.

    Lesser Nobles


    The following reconstruction is based on the descriptions of early Germanic social and political organization as provided in Caesar's Gallic War and Tacitus' Germania, Histories, and Annals. Of course this is tempered by the well established view of Indo-European societies as hierarchical and having three tiers. These tiers were the relative small noble and indentured classes, followed by a vast peasantry. In general, the structure of any given Indo-European ethnos was also subdivided by familial and political affiliations, which in turn were often defined by social or economic factors. Nonetheless, at the lowest level these represented extended clans, septs, and individual families whereby marriage and birth determined patrilineal decent groups. Thus a lineage was the demographic building blocks upon which a given society was ordered, from the rural household to the tribe. Descriptions of the political and military offices associated with the tribal Lugiones are offered below.


    Moldo Korowados
    (Junior War Chief)


    Characters may become a Moldo Korowados (Junior War Chief) between the ages of 25 and 30. There is no limit to the number of characters that can hold this office. This office represents a notable young warrior of noble birth that had collected a large number of retainers and several lesser war chiefs; each with their own retinue of armed follows. As a side note, depending on their fame and renown the lesser war chiefs were themselves important personages, however they were of common or more typically foreign born. In turn, Moldo Korowadoi were recruited by Perôwaldoi (District Leaders) to bolster the resolve of the troops that comprised their common levy.


    Mensowaldos, Kawallwiros, and Drewos
    (Lesser Chieftain, Knight, and Holyman)


    Characters may become eligible for the office of Mensowaldos (Lesser Chieftain), Kawallwiros (Knight), and Drewos (Holyman) between the ages of 25 and 30. The Mensowaldoi represent headmen that preside as civil judges over the common assemblies and oversee the distribution of war spoils amoung a number of small dispersed communities. The Kawallwiroi were members of the lesser nobility that for one reason or another did not occupy a formal civil or military office. Typically, they formed a levy of medium horse troops known as the Aswiniai. Similar to the Kawallwiroi, the Drewoi signified an informal office wherein individuals of the lesser nobility served as priests, shaman, doctors, and seers. In the military realm the Drewoi serve as standard bearers and are identified by a staff made from Rowan wood. Characters that assume these offices are accompanied by specific traits, however if these attributes are retrained for more than two years, they may not advance further in civil or military rank.


    Wiswaldos
    (Senor Nobleman)


    Characters may become a Wiswaldos (Senor Nobleman) after the age of 30. There is no limit to the number of characters that can hold this office. This is an informal office that represents a nobleman that has both commercial and military attributes, but no civil authority. On the one hand the Wiswaldoi organized trading expeditions and established seasonal emporiums, with the purpose of acquiring amber, ivory, and furs from the north; in exchange for wine, weapons, and cattle. In contrast they also sponsed the trade of these items and local war-slaves for weapons and luxury goods made in the Celtic and Mediterranean worlds. However, given the nature of Germanic societies in this era, in order to amass the capital necessary to conduct these operations, the Wiswaldoi actively promoted and executed small scale raids primarily designed to capture cattle, horses, and slaves, using lesser war chiefs and the Aswiniai. Nonetheless at the end of this process, for prestige and fame alone, the proceeds from a lucrative exchange of goods was ultimately donated to the state and distributed throughout the members of the larger community.

    Greater Nobles


    Sentos Korowados, Leginatos, and Kriwas
    (Senior War Chief, Magistrate, and High Priest)

    Characters may become a Sentos Korowados (Senior War chief) or Leginatos (Magistrate) after the age of 30. There is no limit to the number of characters that can hold these offices. Due to the nature of Germanic societies in this era, under normal circumstances these represent the highest tier of political office available to Lugiones nobility. The Sentos Korowados, or senor war chief, was an informal office whereby an individual was not elected or appointed to; rather it was earned or achieved. The Sentos Korowadoi represented well-seasoned and relatively famous warriors of noble birth that had collected a large group of retainers and lesser war chiefs, based on reputation, charisma, and personal acts of bravery. Typically, the Sentos Korowadoi and their followers were recruited by the Perôwaldoi, or district chieftains, either to support their common-levy or to act as a personal bodyguard in battle. Although the Sentos Korowadoi had no civil authority, because of the importance of warfare to Germanic culture and their individual fame and prestige, their influence was felt throughout Lugiones society.

    The Leginatoi were individuals of noble birth that were appointed to serve as magistrates with the authority to execute the will of the general or common assembly and the Perôwaldoi. These taskings usually focused on the apprehension or execution of individuals deemed outlaws, the confiscation of private property, and some type of ritual aspect; such as sacrifice or divination. Therefore, the actual authority and means of the Leginatoi to act was limited in scale and scope. As a result, this office was typically temporary with a term that did not exceed a single year; however successful individuals may find themselves repeatedly assigned to this posting. Nonetheless, this office provided opportunities for lesser nobles to gain a certain degree of renown in the civic realm, while demonstrating their competence and willingness to obey the wishes of the people. It was in this manner that physically and mentally fit noblemen were identified and selected for higher civil office.

    A character may be eligible to become a Kriwas only after being a Drewoi reaching the age of 50. Those elder Drewoi of great knowledge and held in high esteem may serve as the high priest or priestess of a particular cult. They were known as Kriwai and were identified by the symbol of office; a tall Rowan Wood staff with a misshapen head. The office of Kriwas was formal and garnered somewhat more authority than the common Drewoi, as far as the founding and maintenance of shrines, altars, holy groves, and temples. These high priests often distributed or administered the proceeds of successful wars or commercial enterprises donated to the state. Finally, largely as a matter of prestige and influence, a Kriwas typically accompanied a Pirmowôros that was a follower of the cult they represented.

    Perôwaldos
    (District Chieftain)


    Characters may become a Perôwaldos, or district chieftain after the age of 30. The Perôwaldoi were nobles that served as district leaders or chieftains. Normally, the Perôwaldos was the highest public offical in the Lugiones power structure and served as a spokesmen for a large number of related communities or a subtribe. The term of office was irregular but averaged about four to five years, at which time a new district chieftain was selected from a pool of eligible nobles. This was done by an assembly of Mensowaldoi, Kawallwiroi, and Drewoi drawn from the affilated clans and cummunities that composed the body politic. Together with groups of elder statesmen, called Pirmowôroi, the duties of the district chieftains included the resolution of legal matters, such as ownership, criminality, and ritual observance. When discussions of war and peace, or significant issues were required, they also accommodated and oversaw the assembly of affiliated nobles and commoners. Other roles of this office was the issuance of the first spear and shield to the sons of noblemen who had come of age, as well as, the recruitment and hosting of war chiefs and their followers. However, by far the most important duty of the Perôwaldoi was to lead the army into battle.


    Pirmowôros
    (First Elder)

    In contrast a character may be eligible to become a Pirmowôros only after being a Perôwaldos and reaching the age of 50. Although largely an honorary office the Pirmowôroi represent an assembly of prominent nobles who’s primary role was to advise and influence the Perôwaldos. In turn the Pirmowôros were normally accompanied by a Kriwas who had the ear of the statesmen. They also helped to initiate young men into the various warrior societies and otherwise were responsible for grooming young noblemen for higher office. Furthermore, they delineated the responsibilities of individual communities and in times of war supervised the Rēnksemtos (gathering of the hundreds), which represented the common levy.


    Tribal Leaders


    Tautowados and Æstsowados
    (Tribal Chieftain and Transmigration Leader)


    Characters may become a Tautowados (tribal chieftain) and Æstsowados (transmigration leader) after the age of 30. A Tautowados would be a nobleman of great distinction that was selected by a general tribal assembly of nobles and commoners. However, this office can only be activated immediately after a province controlled and dominated by a population affiliated with the Lugiones faction had been invaded by a foreign army. The Tautowados represents a temporary office created for the purpose of addressing the type of emergences that threatened the very existence of the state. The office of Æstsowados is similar to that of the Tautowados, however it is only activated immediately after a large army associated with the Lugiones faction invades a foreign province. The term of both offices do not exceed five years or the duration of the events that inspired the initial activation of the office. Collectively, the Tautowadoi and Æstsowadoi offer a level of leadership and authority whereby abilities and resources would not otherwise be available to the Lugiones faction.


    Rikos
    (King)


    Characters may become a Rikos (King) only after the following conditions are meant. A character is eligible to become a Rikos when they are at least 30 year old and must have served as a Tautowados or Æstsowados. They also must have been able to establish themselves within a province located outside the physical extent of Greater Germania. Additionally, they must retain control of this province for no fewer than four contiguous years. If a character fulfills these requirements they will be provided the opportunity to become a Rikos. The office of Rikos offers the chance for the leader of the Lugiones faction to adopt the culture of the host province which they occupy.



    Last edited by cmacq; 01-04-2011 at 07:08.
    quae res et cibi genere et cotidiana exercitatione et libertate vitae

    Herein events and rations daily birth the labors of freedom.

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    Bruadair a'Bruaisan Member cmacq's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    Warriors of the Lugiones





    The Moldoi (Youths)
    Light Foot and Picqueters (Javelin and knife)


    This unit was composed of a large group of lightly-armed men recruited from a number or neighboring farmsteads and small hamlets found throughout eastern Germania. They were often related by kinship and served for only a few months every year. Typically, while part of the common levy they were the youngest able-bodied men who had been prepared for warfare by the rigors of their daily life; however they had not been fully tested by the stress, fear, and lethality of actual combat. They were protected only by a cloak and a rectangular wood-plank shield and were armed with fire-hardened javelins, and a short knife. This type of unit often acted as the home guard or was used to raid the unprotected herds and farmsteads of their enemies. They were also utilized to initiate an ambush, harass, or instigate a delay, forcing an enemy army from the march to deploy and commit to battle. When the fight grew too intense, due to their quickness, picqueters could easily turn and run, only to stop and face back upon their enemies once again. Therefore, given their inability to deter a determine foe for long, a commander was somewhat limited in their use.

    The young men of the Moldoi units followed war chiefs, who were in fact proven leaders in battle. In this respect they were energetic, prominent, and always fought at the fore, thus lead men because they were admired and not because they had the authority to command. Due to the grace of the gods, war chiefs were men who had survived many battles and were themselves skillful warriors. Native born, above all else they were men with the ability to heroically inspire those that followed, with words, deeds, and gifts.

    But to chide or confine a warrior is not permitted, as only of those devoted to the gods may strike with a Koros staff made of Rowan, not as punishment, but rather to stir the fighting-spirit. And it is these priestly-men that attach themselves to a war chief who bear the battle-standards where they place atop, a figure or image of their gods taken from the sacred groves. Overall, the war chief and priestly-standard bearer were dressed much the same as the rank and file, except they had no leather hooded shoulder cape. Instead they have a leather tunic, a leather head band, and are armed with a leather covered circular wood-plank shield, with a cup-shaped iron boss and an iron hand-grip. They also carry a late iron La Tene type spear and long sword.






    The Koroi (Warriors)
    Light Foot or the Common Levy (Spear and Javelin)


    __The Early Koroi___________________________
    This unit normally included a large number of lightly-armed men, drafted every year from each district to serve as the common levy. These were friends, bothers, sons, fathers, nephews, and uncles; all bound by the ties of community and kinship. Throughout the year of service, a corresponding number of households were obligated to support the common levy. This duty was altered annually, so that neither the pursuit of war nor subsistence was ever neglected. Over all, the common levy included both young and middle-aged men who had experienced warfare and demonstrated a capacity for battle. Thus, they were initiated into one of the many warrior societies dedicated to Koros, their god of war. Knowing that fate may await behind any tree and the ultimate wage of war renders all men equal, they care not for vanity and dress and arm themselves with little distinction. The youngest, least skilled and most poorly armed were always placed in the foremost ranks among a few wiser and cooler heads as the face of the shield-wall. The older more experienced and slightly better armed, were usually well represented farthest from the front. Yet after the clash-of-arms; as exuberance and strength ebbed, these practiced hands filtered to the fore to steady failure or reinforce success.

    Protected only by a cloak, each man was equipped with a large oval shield made of planked wood and a single spear designed for short-sharp thrusts. As their only offensive weapon, if the spear was bent or broken, every man carried a hunting knife that could also be used for personal defense. Collectively, as was the nature of heroic societies, the men of the common levy were led by war chiefs. Select men tried, tested, and elected by good fortune with a fitting rank and respect. By the levy's brawn and war chief's brain, for personal pride and further gain; honor and reward was pledged in the defeat and degradation of enemies that always abound. To realize this enterprise, and in so doing so, outshine their one another in a fight, without reservation they promised their full devotion to their war chief. Yet in truth, the common levy formed the backbone of the ancient armies of the Lougiones and upon the ability to resist, hold-fast, or advance the shield-wall against a determine foe, hinged the safety and survival of their nation.

    The members of the Kareus units followed a war chief, who was in fact a proven leader in battle. In this respect they were energetic, prominent, and always fought at the fore, thus lead men because they were admired and not because they had the authority to command. Due to the grace of the gods, war chiefs were men who had survived many battle and were themselves skillful warriors. Native born, above all else they were men with the ability to heroically inspire those that followed them with words, deeds, and gifts. But to chide or confine a warrior is not permitted, as only of those devoted to the gods may strike with a Koros staff made of Rowan, not as punishment, but rather to stir the fighting-spirit. And it is these priestly-men that attach themselves to a war chief who bear the battle-standards where they place atop, a figure or image of their gods taken from the sacred groves. Overall, the war chief and priestly-standard bearer were dressed much the same as the rank and file, except they had no leather hooded shoulder cape. Instead they have a leather tunic, a leather head band, and are armed with a leather covered circular wood-plank shield, with a cup-shaped iron boss and an iron hand-grip. They also carry a late iron La Tene type spear and long sword.



    __The Late Koroi___________________________
    At first glance the common levy of the Late Period may have resembled the Light Foot of the Early Period, however this unit represented a further advancement of a somewhat unique tactical concept. From a rather poorly-armed and rigid task-specific rabble, the common levy of the Late Period was better equipped, more flexible and maneuverable in difficult terrain, while at the same time it had become much more lethal due to the development of dual use weapon sets and formal training. With that said, the common levy was still conscripted, organized and composed along similar lines. As tradition required they nonetheless continued to quickly advance into battle protected only by a large shield, cloak, or a leather waist cloak; with a short hunting knife by their side. Yet as they formed the shield-wall, together with the skirmishers, they would unleash a maelstrom of javelins, rocks, and clubs. With this formal introduction finished they felt-free to close upon the foe with their last remain framea, in order to get better acquainted.

    Throughout the course of battle, if the gods' favor turned, they might as well trust to their heels, and disengage with little loss or any sense of shame. Another important development was enhanced leadership provided by more experienced and better armed war chiefs together with a small troop of companions. Due to their greater devotion to the gods and arts of war, not only did these men display greater skill with weapons, they also knew how to inspire the body and soul to move with a purpose, remain resolute when hard-pressed, and in the end risk everything. It appears that many of these changes were part of a general trend in military development seen across much of Europe, attributable in large measure to the growing influence of the Italian peninsula.



    Korowados (War Chief) and Drewos (Standard Bearer) Set






    The Toutāginoi (Defenders of the Nation)
    Elite Medium Foot (Spear and Javelin)


    __The Early Toutāginoi___________________________
    This unit represents relatively small groups of men that followed a particularly successful war chief. As war within greater Germania was endless and this was their vocation, these men tented to be better armed, were skillful in the use of weapons, and displayed far greater resolve in battle than any man of the common levy. These men and their war chief where not directly tied to a single district, nation, of even a specific ethnicity. Rather they offered their service to any and all, as their presence was always in demand. These warriors were the war chief’s personal escort, and they keenly vie with one another, as each was ranked according to the preference of the man to whom they had attached themselves. In turn, the war chiefs competed in order to attract the largest number of the bravest and most skilled warriors. To be surrounded by a large body of picked troops was a source of pride and a display of power, and was seen as a prize in peace and a shield in war. Because they bestowed renown and glory upon one so distinguished, officials flattered these war chiefs and wooed them to their cause with gifts and hospitality. Ultimately, it was understood by all, that the prestige of a war chief's name alone, may decide the outcome of a war.

    Wearing a wool tunic and trousers, these men used a leather hooded-shoulder cape and a large oval or subrectangular shield made of wood for added protection. They were armed with several short javelins, which were hurled into the enemy’s ranks at a distance. This was often done in conjunction with skirmishers and other missile troops to create a huge hailstorm of dread and death, designed to promote the initial clash of arms. They were also armed with a single spear that was used at close-quarters to great effect in the melee that followed. In combat this swift-footed unit was used to reinforce the common levy and with harsh-toned war songs and their very presence incited a heightened sense of fighting spirit. Additionally, because of their tenacity, ability to endure, and inclination to freely parcel out the most relentless punishment they were used to anchor an entire battle line. And, it was there, in harms way at the very front and center, that war chiefs found a place to work their wonders, and roused the spirit to ever greater acts of courage. For often, it is on the backs of a few brave men, that the fate of mighty nations ride.

    The Toutāginōs unit represented the followers of a war chief, who was in fact a proven leader of ‘picked men.’ In this respect they were energetic, prominent, and always fought at the fore, thus they lead picked men because they were admired and not because they had the authority to command. Due to the grace of the gods, these war chiefs were men who had survived many battle and were skillful warriors in their own right. Although they may have descended from the Istvaeones, Ingaevones, Herminones, or som e other race, for some reason they found themselves among the Lougiones. Yet, above all else they were men with the ability to heroically inspire those that followed them with words, deeds, and gifts; which were the prize of battles won. In battle it is a dishonor for the war chief to be surpassed in boldness, as likewise disgraceful for his followers not to match the valor of their chief. It is an outrage and reprehensible for his men to survive the war chief’s death, and return alive from the field of battle. To defend, to protect their chief, to ascribe their brave deeds to his renown, is the height of loyalty. The war chief fights for victory, while his men fight for the honor of their chief.

    But to chide or confine a warrior is not permitted, as only of those devoted to the gods may strike with a Koros staff made of Rowan, not as punishment, but rather to stir the fighting-spirit. And it is these priestly-men that attach themselves to a war chief who bear the battle-standards where they place atop, an image of their gods taken from the sacred groves. As was their custom, these men were ministers of their gods. When consulted about the course or outcome of war, twigs lobbed from a fruit-bearing tree were tossed onto a white garment. With eyes aloft these holy-men three-times invoked their gods then read aloud the random rune-marked fall the twigs had made. Overall, the war chief and priestly-standard bearer were dressed much the same as the rank and file, except they had no leather hooded shoulder cape. Instead they have a leather tunic, a leather head band, and are armed with a leather covered circular wood-plank shield, with a cup-shaped iron boss and an iron hand-grip. They also carry a late iron La Tene type spear and long sword.


    __The Late Toutāginoi___________________________
    In the wake of the Cimbric migration much of the Gran Celteria and greater Germania reeled for years thereafter from widespread destruction, depopulation, and the dissolution of the local, as well as the regional status quo. In the broadest sense of this context, the reformation of the Toutāginōs unit represents a shift away from the dominant La Tene armaments and the emergence of a relatively new tradition primarily based in what is now modern Poland. Overall, the trends in the development of armaments, reflected by the Toutāginōs unit, as with the evolution of the battle tactics in general, were of course based on the progressive proliferation of iron. This was largely due to further advancements in the methods of extracting and smelting bog iron. Although an important source of ore used to make domestic tools, better grades of iron continued to be imported from the mining centers found throughout the upper Vistula basin, particularly for the manufacture of high quality weapons. In areas with even greater demands, the attributes of the readily available low-grade bog iron also inspired a number of important innovations in the design and production of armaments. With this said the late period Toutāginōs unit remained an elite formation composed of ‘picked men,’ recruited by war chiefs, who in turn were retained by district chieftains in order to bolster their levies.

    The men of the late period Toutāginōs unit were dressed much the same as the early period. They were protected from the elements by a wool tunic, trousers, and a large cloak, while a leather hooded-shoulder cape, a leather tunic and a large leather covered hexagonal shield made of wood was used to guard against the outrageous fortunes of battle. Above all else, the hexagonal shield provided a greater degree of protection and more flexibility within the restrictions imposed by formation-fighting. Each man carried a single standardized spear of improved design that was efficiently used together with the hexagonal shield at close-quarters. They also were armed with several short javelins each tipped with a narrow iron point, called the ‘Framea.’ This weapon was used to strike at a distance, or face-to-face would just as easily put-down a foe. The Framea were often discharged in conjunction with a huge collection of other missiles to inspire an enemy to quickly close and commence the hand-to-hand. Likewise these men sing before a fight, that Hercules is with them, as the greatest and strongest of all warriors, unequaled strides into battle. That they also recite these songs, called the 'Baritum,' to inflame the will, and from the sing-song style forecast a melee’s outcome. In fact, to agitated and instill fear, accordingly course notes are fashioned, not so much an utterance, as to discern a manly-tone. They strive for a particular harsh sounding unruly roar, with mouth taut to shield; thereby reverberated their voice is swollen deep and full.


    The Warowinoi (Men of Might)
    Elite Medium Foot (Sword and Javelin)


    __The Early Warowinoi___________________________
    This unit is comprised of a small number of well-armed men bound to war and the leaders of great renown that made it. Overall, other warriors saw them differently as they would not wait for the clash of arms, rather they actively sought to instigate the start of battle. To this bloody end, they were often seen to range beyond the fro most ranks, with verbal slights and rage passed over outstretched shields. For in these early days, only they recited the primeval chants of the Baritum. As every child knows, to stage a row without this melodic harsh-toned provocation, designed to inflame the human soul, only served to invite the war god's enduring wrath. Nevertheless, these troops were primarily recruited from the lands that faced the sea, called in their native tongue, Pomeri. This was due to this regions reputation to supply efficient killing tools and first-rate men. Before events transpired that changed everything, small bans of these warriors attached themselves only to the most famous war chiefs, who were in turn employed by noblemen to affect the people's fortune. Unforeseen, as a means their steady-rise in number and social-stance meant of course more wealth as fate willed. Yet, a simple test of time laid bare indeed they had effect that would thereby transform the nation.

    Into battle the Warowinoi wore the common garb; leather shoes, belt, a drab wool shirt and trousers. For protection a leather hooded-shoulder cape, leather tunic, and a large leather-covered oval or subrectangular planked-wood shield was used. A few might sport a thick leather skull cap, while most men were proud to cover their heads with nothing, but too-long wildly unkempt hair. Designed to extract a hefty toll each man was armed with several javelins, which were hurled into the enemy’s ranks to great effect. To inspire the melee’s blood, sweat, and tears they were more apt to exploit double-bladed swords fashioned by the Celts, and locally made weapons with a single edge called the 'kalaboi.' Indeed, the sword was the weapon's name that gave these men their might. Whereas, sight of their presence and knowing of their purpose, stirred in the bravest hearts, the very essence of fear. For while other tools of war were used to defend, injury, or maim an adversary, the sword’s sole role in the hand of the willing man, was to end another's life. Thus, these warriors were also known far and wide, as 'man-killers.'

    The Warowinoi unit officer set represented the leaders of ‘picked men.’ In this respect they were energetic, prominent, and always fought at the fore, and thus led because of admiration; not because they had the authority to command. Due to the gods' grace these war chiefs had survived many battles and were skillful warriors in their own right. In battle it was dishonor for the war chief to be surpassed in boldness, as likewise it was disgraceful for his followers not to match their chief's valor. Above all else these leaders possessed the ability to inspire those that followed with heroic words and deeds. It was an outrage and reprehensible for his men to survive the war chief’s death, and return alive from of battle. To defend, to protect their chief, to ascribe their brave deeds to his renown, was the height of loyalty. The war chief fights for victory, while his men fight for the honor of their chief.

    But to chide or confine a warrior is not permitted, as only those devoted to the gods may strike with a Koros staff made of Rowan, not as punishment, but rather to stir the fighting-spirit. And it is these priestly-men, having attached themselves to a war chief, that bear the battle-standards atop which they mount an image of their gods taken from the sacred groves. As was their custom, these men were ministers of their gods. When consulted about the course or outcome of war, twigs lobbed from a Rowan tree were tossed onto a white garment. With eyes aloft these holy-men three-times invoked their gods then read aloud the runes made by the random fall of twigs. Overall, the war chief and priestly-standard bearer were dressed much the same as the rank and file, except they had no leather hooded shoulder cape. Instead they had a leather tunic, a leather head band, and were armed with a leather covered circular wood-plank shield, with an iron boss and an hand-grip. The war-chief also carried a late iron La Tene type spear and long sword, while the bearer had the standard and a long Rowan wood staff with a lead-weighted head.



    __The Late Warowinoi___________________________
    Composed of relatively small groups of men, this unit represented those retained by important chiefs. Based on the merits of individual strength, weapon skill, and courage a district chieftain offered these warriors gifts of bread, beef, and beer; designed as praise inlisted to fulfill his wants and needs. Allotted accordingly, these gifts were no more than the spoils of past and present wars. Drawn from every lawful quarter, the most able and war-like, had surrendered the management of home and herd to women, old men, or the weakest family member. Between wars, they alternately devoted themselves to sleep and the feast, as strangely those so averse to peace were equally fond of sloth and idleness. Yet, if these men found a nation that retained them, tranquil for too long a while, they sought out another more aggressive tribe, and wherever they chose to make a stand garnered ever greater fame onto themselves. So that was often said, that on any given day the gods would find even the least of their numbers, worth more than twice the measure of any other man.


    The Nokwlentoi (Night Fighters)
    Elite-Assault Light Foot (Club and Knife)


    The club is humankind’s earliest weapon and throughout history warriors have taken great pride in facing a well armed enemy with only the most primitive weapons. Herein, none of the Lugiones have greater vigor or dedication, before those first numbered as fit and brave, and yet to evoke uncanny ferocity they indulge both art and opportunity. Therefore they incite even greater fear by stripping down to the breeches, and with darkened shields and bodies, collect in the pitch-black of night, to fight as a ghastly horde of demons. As quick and quiet as a foul breath from Hell, they pass as shadows among the trees to suddenly reappear, and in one fell swoop strike down an enemy with wooden clubs. Yet, thereafter they would also end a panicked cry and calm so many troubled souls, with nothing but the hunting knife. Those untrained, unsteeled, or unfamiliar with such infernal aspects can only hope to withstand their unnatural onslaught. As in battle the eye is quickly overwhelmed and always turned first to flight by unseen assaults upon the mind.


    The Aswiniai (Sons of Dievas)
    Medium Horse (Spear and Sword)


    This unit is comprised of the sons of the Lugiones' nobility, that either had not yet assumed authority, or due to birth-order had been deigned birth-rights. Indeed they used far-flung words and claimed divine descent from horse-tamers, who raced the stars from sunset to sunrise. Yet, in truth they were just mortal men of rank and little more than common means. In the distant past such horsemen had been a decisive arm in war. Nonetheless neglect, time, and circumstance beyond control, had relegated to them the secondary role, of reconnaissance and support. However, under the right conditions they could still scatter lightly armed troops and with the gods' speed quickly turn a hardwound fight into a route. For generations among cattle, they maintained their small horse herds, on the rich grassy plain of northern Europe, while new blood was procured from the eastern steppe, through the trade in slaves and amber. In like manner the finest weapons made, found a way into their hands, and by extension were paid as gifts, that further served the wage of endless war.

    Often set astride the blanket or saddle, they reined their mounts with iron bits and rings held taut by leather rigs all wrought in foreign shops. Thus armed, with a well placed foot and skillful pride they dashed to or fro, then turned to quickly halt a steed drilled to bite, kick, and trample under-hove an adversary that ventured forth alone. Dressed as any other, for protection against nature's whims or careless man-made barbs, each rider wore a simple leather tunic and faded woolen cloak. To parry prods with greater punch every man carried a large oval shield fasioned from wooden planks. Moreover, for close-quarters a single sharp-edged thrusting spear was used to belie, transfix, and pull a rival to the ground. After the spear had done its bloody work, to better make a mark, from the sheath they unleashed the cruel double-edged iron sword. Although an open battlefield offered greater fame, their speed and capacity to detach with little loss, meant they were to find, interdict, and delay an enemy’s approach. Whereby the warrior levy could garner and prepare, and at the proper time and place, conjure up a woe-filled welcome for the uninvited foe.




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    Last edited by cmacq; 08-20-2011 at 04:13.
    quae res et cibi genere et cotidiana exercitatione et libertate vitae

    Herein events and rations daily birth the labors of freedom.

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    Bruadair a'Bruaisan Member cmacq's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    The Cosmology and Myth of the Early Western Balts





    An Introduction



    At the outset, it is very important to note that the available information about pre-Christian Baltic religion is incomplete, filled with inconsistencies, and is often based on misconceptions. The primary sources are found in oral traditions; stories, songs, and folklore that were recorded between explain the 12th and 19th centuries. These tend to address the laws of the natural world such as the seasonal change, as well as their relationship to the divine and significance to humankind. In this context the celestial and terrestrial were often portrayed in terms of a human family; for example the sun was called mother, the sky father, and the stars sisters or brothers. Overlaid upon this, the surviving early Old Prussian, Lithuanian, and Latvian religion also includes many archaic traditions shared with other Indo-European mythologies; such as those of the Greeks, Romans, and Celts. Thus, within the limits imposed by the nature of the subject, a comparative analysis of these religious traditions and myths, and better documented examples was also used expand our theoretical reconstruction of the proto-historic religion of the ancient western Balts.


    Immortal Gods, Nature, and Humankind


    At first glance the early Baltic cosmology and myth seems to be a confusing college deities and an aimless patchwork of associated traditions. However on closer inspection several distinct patterns may be discerned. It seems that the collection of early Baltic gods and goddesses actually appear to form three discrete generational groups. The first of these generations represented an early state of being and what can only be described as celestial gods. The second and third generations were the Elemental and Triunic deities, respectively. This tripartite division of the divine was further advanced with the use of three temporal setting and three states of physical beings as a unifying context. Of course, three additional groups of lesser deities were overlaid or scattered over these three generations, who interestingly, often had more direct interaction with humankind, on a daily basis. Finally, for good or ill the interface of the divine and early mortal was seen in terms of dealing with the hero or holy man in the setting of the sacred place.

    The pantheon of early Baltic deities appear to form three discrete generational groups. The first generation represented a primeval cosmos which was personified as the celestial gods. The next or second generation of early Baltic deities represented a group of elemental gods. The third generation signified a set of gods and goddesses who had assumed the traits and attributes of at least three earlier deities. Beyond the major deities associated with each of the three generations or divine ages were he lesser gods, which because of their vast number may seem overwhelming. Another important religious group was composed of the mythic semi-divine heroes of the Late Bronze and Early Iron ages.


    The Celestial Gods


    The first generation of early Baltic deities represented a primeval cosmos which was conceptualized as a small group of deities known as the celestial gods. This generation included three main figures; the ancient elder father or Sky-god, Deiwos, the venerable mother or goddess, Sauliā, and the unfaithful interloper or moon god, Mē̂nos. Although in this context the cosmos were viewed as not fully formed, the essence and shape of the male and female progenitors, as well as the original antagonist were indeed firmly established. Yet these figures were always perceived as physically remote as this era and generation of gods represented the Pirmokerta, or 'Frist Age;' the beginning of time.


    __Deiwos___________________________
    Collectively, Deiwos (DEAH-vohs) as the chief celestial deity represented the primeval sky and creator being, whose divine inception marks the moment in which time began. Apparently in the cosmology of the early western Balts he was somehow seen as a Father-time figure, whereby the sequence of creation naturally lent itself to a chronological redress for the chaos of the universe. In that respect, Deiwos was roughly analogous to the Norse Mundilfari, Roman Saturn, and Greek Cronus. Thus, he was known by the following epithets: Sentelos, Pramžios, Satvaros, Okopirmos and Prakorimos and was viewed as the progenitor or father of both major as well the lesser gods.

    It seems that Deiwos, as an abstract anthropomorphism was also viewed as the 'Heavens' or 'Dome of the Sky.' Thus, he was similar to the Vedic deity known as Dyausa Pita or Sky-father, and might even be compared to the Greek Ouranos or Roman Uranus. Indeed Deiwos was conceptualized as a grandfather or elder figure who was somewhat detached from mundane concerns or happenstance. However, Baltic myth held that in his youth together with the sun, he made much of heaven's semblance, the substance of middle-earth, and all those things that slithered or crept in the cold darkness of the underworld. Of course this creative burst included a human being, an unintended consequence produced by the castoff of the gods upon the shore of the Baltic Sea. Thus humankind was conceived as fragile and exceedingly ephemeral creatures, who were barely recognized by the gods, yet were intelligent and possessed immoral souls.

    The residence or place of Deiwos was called Dawsos, a mythical place located on a high mountain top situated between two rivers. This holy precinct was surrounded by a great sacred grove where in the center grew a huge apple tree that supported the Dome of Heaven. Together this description suggests the early western Balts may have believed this holy realm was situated within the Hercynian Forest, atop the Sudeten mountains between Danube and Vistula rivers. Nevertheless, the master and overseer of Dawsos was the Wind-god Wayos, who ensured the gate to this abode was guarded by Auštaros, the god of the north wind.



    __Sauliā___________________________
    Literally meaning the sun, Sauliā (SOW-lay) was viewed as a beautiful sky goddess who lived in a residence located far to the east. Each morning she drove a brilliant chariot made of fire pulled by the twin horse gods high into the sky. The horses were called the Aswiniai, of which the dark stead was Wakaros, and the light one; Lougos. As the sun set in the west the chariot transformed into a golden boat which quickly returned Sauliā across the sea to Dawsos. The boat master was the goddess Perkwūni, the sister and wife of Perkwūnas. Upon returning home Perkwūni bathed the exhusted Sauliā. Thereafter Sauliā sleeps in the crown of an enormous apple-tree with silver leaves, copper branches, and iron roots. Then Aušra who was also called Aušrinė, made ready for another day's journey by building a huge bondfire to warm her mother. The following morning rested and refreshed, the shining Sauliā repeated her daily race across the sky.

    Sauliā was also the mother of a two generations of six female deities, the first of which included the earth goddess Zemē. Of these, three eventually came to live among the Lāuksnai and the other three would reside with humankind. Later Sauliā gave birth to a younger, or scond generation of six more goddesses. These included Aušra the morning star (morning Venus), and Wakaranė the evening star (evening Venus), as well as Indrai, Sėlia, Žiezdrė, and Waiwora; who personified the planets , Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, and Mercury, respectively. As an allusion to the principle lunar phases and millennial ages, she had three husbands; Deiwos, Per̃kū̂nos, and Mē̂nos. Mē̂nos, her youngest and erstwhile spouse actually was a moon god, who was often outfitted in palish-silver garb.



    __Mē̂nos___________________________
    Interestingly, Mē̂nos (may-NUS) the lunar god was conceived as a male deity, whereas other Indo-European inspired mythologies view the moon as a female entity. Mē̂nos was also important because days were measured from one dusk to another, and the Lugiones calendar was based on the cycles of the moon. As an opposite to the day and master of the night, Mē̂nos was in the most recent age of humankind, the husband of Sauliā, however she ended their union due to the moon god’s insistent infidelities. In fact, many of the stories about Mē̂nos center on his pursuit of Sauliā's celestial daughters. Of these the most popular concerns Mē̂nos' seduction of Aušra, in the age of the first spring, whereas Sauliā discovered the lustful act and dismembered the moon with a sword. Out of pitty Deinaina reassembled the moon, but the sun dissolved their union and thereafter Sauliā ruled the day and Mē̂nos' the night. Mē̂nos' was envisioned as a handsome young man dressed in palish-sliver attire riding a chariot pull by two black horses.


    The Elemental Gods


    The next or second generation of early Baltic deities represented a group of elemental gods. This group consisted of six male and female deities that represented the sky, earth, water, and fertility. The foremost included Perkwūnas who was a male sky god of thunder and storms. He was followed by Zemē, Pikulas, Jūra, Antrempus, and Patrempus. This second generation of gods and goddesses populated the second era which represented the Antarkerta; otherwise known as the 'Second,' or 'Age of the Gods.' Within this setting it was believed that the universe was divided into three distinct realms. These were known as Dangus, the heavens; Sirdazemē, middle-earth; and Pikla, or the underworld.


    __Per̃kwū̂nas___________________________
    Another important sky deity was the thunder and storm god known as Per̃kwū̂nas (pehr-KOO-nahs). However, Per̃kwū̂nas, meaning thunder, was often referred to as Diwirekos and Barsaûlos. He was actually considered both the son of Deiwos and the chief god himself; roughly analogous to the Greek Zdeús or Latin Diespiter (Iuppiter). Per̃kwū̂nas' name was derived from the ancient word that means 'Oak Tree,' and the Ursa Major constellation was known as Per̃kwū̂nas Wezimas or Per̃kwū̂nas' chariot. This god was also the father of Aušra, the morning star goddess, and the husband of Perkwūni his sister. He was conceptualized as a stern, bearded, and muscular man that crossed the sky riding a bright chariot pulled by swift fiery horses. His head was surrounded by a flaming wreath and he held lightning bolts in one hand and a heavy club in the other. Thus, as a streaming comet the thunder god regularly transcended the boundaries between the generation of celestial and elemental gods.

    For both the divine and corporeal he served as the ultimate judge of right and wrong. When an negative event affected him personally, he was given to fits of rage, that often had unfortunate consequence for those found at fault. Nonetheless, given the laws that govern gods and men, Per̃kwū̂nas was honored and given heart-felt love. Beginning in the early spring, nine festivals devoted to Per̃kwū̂nas were celebrated throughout the course of the year. Per̃kwū̂nas' abode was called Dangus which was similar in design to Deiwos' mountain top retreat. The center of the thunder god's cult seems to have been focused on the Pajauta valley, near Vilnius.



    __Zemē___________________________
    As a daughter of Deiwos and Sauliā, Zemē (zhe-MAY) represented the elemental earth and consummate mother goddess. In one form or another, her name literally means 'the earth' in the Baltic languages, Persian, and Hindi. She also was called Mežamāte (Mother of Forests), Laukumāte (Mother of Fields), Upesmāte (Mother of Rivers), and Lopumāte (Mother of Livestock). She was one of the most beloved deities, as the earth was kissed in the morning and evening; and small offerings of food and drink were left at her informal shrines in thanks for the birth of a child or livestock. One of Zemē’s central stories concerns her abduction by Pikūlas, when she was a resident of Dangus and betrothed to Per̃kwū̂nas. Eventually Pikūlas was defeated and Per̃kwū̂nas recaptured Zemē, however soon thereafter he discovered the truth that the underworld god’s indiscretion was not in fact a crime. Rather it was a result of the earth goddess’ infidelities. Furious, Per̃kwū̂nas forced Zemē out of Dangus and banished her forever as a mother goddess to Sirdazemē (middle-earth).


    __Pikūlas___________________________
    Pikūlas (pi-KUO-lahs), meaning 'under ground,' was the wealthy master of the underworld and earth god also known as Wargos and Welinos. He was the god of cattle, magic and wealth roughly analogous to the Hindi Varuna, Persan Ahura, Greek Hades, Gaulish Orcus, and Etruscan Eita underworld deities. As the god of the dead Pikūlas was seen as an elder grey-haired man armed with a simple wooden staff. For the living, entry to his underworld domain was found near marshes, lakes, bogs, and other misty low-lying places. Humans went to these sites to prey for his aid, or in dire circumstance they often descend into Pekla and personally beseech Pikūlas. At certain times he might even offer to help humankind, as he was very keen to be invited to their weddings and funerals. His central stories seem to concern the abduction of women, such as the mother goddess Zemē and later Niole the daughter of Kormē̂. As punishment for taking Zemē, Per̃kwū̂nas banished Pikūlas from entering Dangus and sent him to the underworld to rule over Pikla as the lord of the dead.


    __Jūra___________________________
    Jū̂rā̂ (yoo-RA) was an important sea goddess whoes residence was Gûlow, a submerged abode, from where she ruled the waters of the world. She also was the goddess of the tranquil and bountiful sea, as well as all aquatic creatures and amber. Her central story concerns the rejection of the male sea god Antrempas as a suitor, and her radical discission to marry a mortal. The jealous and often vengeful Antrempas bitterly complained to the thunder god about this slight. When Per̃kwū̂nas learned that Antrempas had been thusly dishonored and humiliated, he stormed into a horrific rage; utterly destroying Jūra's new husband and wrecking her home. As further punishment and to magnify her shame, he chained Jūra to the seafloor. Then in perpetuity, he made Jūra pay a hefty wage in amber tears, kicked up by waves for the careless joy of humankind, each time Antrempas commanded the sea to storm.


    __Antrempus___________________________
    As a male consort for the fair Jūra, Antrempus (on-TRIM-posh) represented a deity that was continually eclipsed by his female counterpart. He was viewed as a stormy, jealous, vengeful, and often cruel sea god who always expected over compensation for a perceived wrong or anything taken from his realm. He was seen as a middle-aged man of great strength who carried a long fishing spear and rode a frothy chariot pulled by two foamy white horses. Antrempus' central story concerns his abduction of the amber goddess, who later became his wife. After seeing how beautifully resplendent she was the sea god decided to keep her as a wife. Imprisoned in the depths and unable to see her parents, she became increasingly more distort over time, so Antrempus finally relented and promised she would see her family once again. He scooped the amber goddess up in one arm and jumped aboard his waiting chariot which quickly ascended to the surface as a typhoon. As they break the waves her mother and father see their daughter marked by an amber necklace, in the grasp of the cruel sea god. As a remembrance the amber goddess tossed her grieving parents the necklace which breaks and scatters in the stormy waves. As Antrempus began to sink back into the surf, the amber goddess finally realized she was forever lost to the sea.


    __Patrempus___________________________
    Patrempus (pah-TRIM-posh) was known as a god of fertility, feast, and seasonal rebirth, as well as the brother of Per̃kwū̂nas and Pikūlos. He was provided the epithets Perkrubrius and Laukpatas, meaning the 'Lord of the Harvest.' Additionally, he was the god of cattle, crops, plenty, and serpents; whereby extension Patrempus was also associated with divination and medicine. Patrempus was envisioned as a young beardless man with a ample crown made of oak leafs. His earthly abode was a temple sanctuary known as the Ramowa, or 'place of serenity,' which was associated with a large sacred oak and surrounded by a grove. Although Patrempus was generally viewed as a great benefactor to mortals, on the other hand, he also demanded human sacrifice. As it was commonly believed that one who suffered an honorable dead was rewarded in the next life, these executions most often included those captured in battle or criminals. Through earthly servants Patrempus witnessed the distribution of the spoils of war, as one third was often promised as the price of victory. The remaining two thirds was heaped in a settlement's common area and each citizen took what they wanted, regardless of their status or rank.

    As the god of the feast and plenty Patrempus played another important role in the common funerary ritual and the general economic nature of the state. I this, through ancient arts the body of the decease was preserved and the Sarmonis feast was held to honor Patrempus. If the dead was a commoner the feast lasted only days or weeks. But if they were noble, this rite could continued as long as six months. Thoughout this rite the Raudā, or songs of lamentation, were sung to lament, praised, and bid farewell so the dead would safely arrive in Pikūlas to be among parents, brothers, sisters, and other relatives. Yet with the final swine or sip of wine, the result was all the same, as everything the dead had owned, the living had consumed. Thereafter the body of the dead was placed upon a pyre and cremated.



    The Triunic Gods


    The third generation signified a set of gods and goddesses who had assumed the traits and attributes of at least three earlier deities. It seems that often these deities had in turn also incorporated some of the characteristics of even earlier gods, both male and female. The most important of these figures were Lugas, Kowas, Kormē̂, and Lamē̂. The third divine generation and era represented the Tirsakerta; the 'Third,' or 'Age of Heroes.' This period was viewed as a mythic time when the first generation of gods, while still visible to all, had all but withdrawn to the remoteness of their heavenly realm. Although a bit more accessible, as indeed the second generation of gods interjected themselves into situations by alternative means. However, overall they generally appeared somewhat removed from domestic concerns. In contrast, the third generation of gods, to include a host of lesser gods, was intimately involved in the daily machinations of humankind in the Age of Heroes, which as a concept roughly corresponded to the historic Late Bronze and Early Iron ages.


    __Lugas___________________________
    Lugas (LEWK-ahs) as a divine representative of the Lugiones confederation, symbolized a composite of many traditions, both foreign and domestic, intergraded into a single deity. It was claimed that Lugas was born a son of three fathers; Wurs, Sunis, and Pekutas, who each in turn had three fathers; while his mother was a Gigāntai, who were an ancient race of Titans. He was associated with the black birds, wolves, the horse, and paired snakes. Lugus was idealized as the bright slivery light of the moon and the giver and witness of the oaths that bind men to gods. In numerous tongues he was given the epithets; Ilgarānkās or 'Long Armed,' Ludaskunstās, meaning 'Master of all Arts,' and Luglukarmos, 'the bright one with the deft arm.' He was seen as a young man of strong-build dressed in a many-colored cloak and armed with a shield and a magical spear called Kwatestos. In his youth Lugas wondered the earth until he reached the abode of the Bûrwalkai, or household gods; who were Zemē's children and the last divine generation. However, they would not let him join, until he offered a skill that no other possessed. Lugas provided a long list, yet each was rejected as other gods already had these talents. But, Lugas inquired if there was any one god with all these skills combined, and with this he was allowed to become a member of the assembly.

    Lugas’ central story concerns the war against the Gigāntai, who in those days had made the Bûrwalkai subservient, demanding a huge annual tribute. Lugas wondered why this situation was tolerated and when Siraplarānkās, the 'Sliver Armed' god and leader of the Bûrwalkai, saw his skill as a warrior, made him his war chief. Thereafter, the new war chief demanded the recovery of three magical artifacts as Wredigalis (payment for wrongful death), from the three murders, of his foremost father; Wurs. Yet, soon the Gigāntai champion killed Siraplarānkās in ambush, and Lugas armed with the magical artifacts, led the Bûrwalkai to avenge his death and claim their freedom. After killing the Gigāntai champion Lugas captured their leader, who begged for Išplakalûst; to be ransomed. Although the Bûrwalkai clamored for his death he was spared after agreeing to have Kormē̂ teach them the arts of husbandry of farming.



    __Kowas___________________________
    As the quintessential god of war, Kowas (KOH-vas) assumed many of the traits of three earlier deities. These included the thunder god Per̃kwū̂nas, the underworld god Pikūlas, and the fertility god Patrempus. He was also known by the epithets, Kauriraras, the 'War Bringer,' and Swetawitas, meaning the 'Lord of the World.' He was depicted as have four faces each looking in a different cardinal direction. Three of these represent the earlier gods of thunder, the underworld, and fertility subsumed within the fourth face of Kowas. While being well versed in the talents and traits of the earlier gods, he was considered to be most skilled at the bloody arts of war. Wine and ale from a great sliver horn were often offered to sway Kowas in the spring, along with large sweet honey cakes. Before any great undertaking it was common for animals and the lives of men to be sacrificed in his name. While one third of the spoils of war was typically given to Kowas as the price of victory, on rare occasion everything was offered to this god. He was conceived as a bearded powerfully built middle aged-man mounted on a snow-white horse, armed with a sword, shield, and a large drinking horn. It was believed that Kowas rode against the enemy at night and in the morning his sacred horse was covered in sweat. The priests dedicated to the war god would use this horse to divine the outcome of battle, a commercial enterprise, as well as the health and size of herds and harvests.


    __Kormē̂___________________________
    Kormē̂ (koor-MAY) the goddess of agriculture and may have embodied a triunic tradition that included Zemē (earth), Austia (bees), and Kupolė (spring). She also appears to have been similar to the Greek goddess Demeter. As the sister of Per̃kwū̂nas, Kormē̂'s central story concerns Pikūlos' abduction of her daughter Niole (nee-OH-lay). When the goddess discovered her daughter was missing, she panicked and went to Per̃kwū̂nas to ask if he had seen Niole. The thunder god told he had not seen her, but said she should look to the earth. Now in dread Kormē̂ went to Patrempus and asked him if he knew where her daughter was. The god of plenty told her no, yet said she should look to the earth. Thereafter, in great grief Kormē̂ wandered the earth searching while introducing humankind the arts husbandry of farming. Eventually, she found a boulder that marked the underworld's entry, on which Deiwos had inscribed Niole's sign. Kormē̂ descended to find that Pikūlos had made Niole his wife and as such could no long return to Sirdazemē (middle-earth). Yet is was possible for Kormē̂ to visit Niole for several months each year in Pekla during winter. After she returned to middle-earth in spring the welfare of humankind always improved.


    __Lamē̂___________________________
    Lamē̂ (lah-MEY) the goddess of destiny is part of another triunic tradition which was a distillation of Dalā (dah-LAY), Galtunē̂ (gahl-TOO-ney), and Māgila (may-GAY-lah). These deities represented the goddesses of fate, death, and medicine, respectively. In the context of a common Indo-European mythology, Lamē̂ as destiny, was conceived as a single ageless woman who embodied three discrete and fully manifested aspects. In this regard destiny was similar to the Nordic Norns or Greek Moira, however Lamtē̂ was also associated with darkness, light, foresight, childbirth, marriage, death, propagation, and domesticity. Thus, she was related to Laxmi Mata, the Hindu goddess of luck and wealth, as well. Lamē̂’s totem was the Gēgusa (cuckoo) bird and was seen as living in groves of the Lîpa (Lime) tree, where she had small stone altars upon which offerings were placed.


    Household, Twin, and Lesser Gods


    Beyond the major deities associated with each of the three generations or divine ages were he lesser gods, which because of their vast number may seem overwhelming. However, they seem to represent three groups known as the Lāuksnai, Bûrwalkai, and Aswiniai. The Lāuksnai were the innumerable stars that fill the night sky; seen as the sons and daughters of the Sauliā. They were viewed as rather reserved, somewhat aloof, and far removed from caring about the trial and tribulations of humankind. Likewise the Aswiniai, or twin gods were seen in much the same context. However, the Bûrwalkai, or the household gods represented a group of deities that served to aid or acted as intermediates between humanity and the greater gods.


    __Lāuksnai___________________________
    The Lāuksnai (LAOWK-sa-naye) were the stars clearly visible in the night sky, otherwise known as the ‘Milky Way.’ In this respect, they were often called Pepeligrînsli, Gerwegrînsli, and Welegrînsli; the way of 'birds, cranes,' and the 'dead,' respectively. In fact, they were seen as the innumerable children of Sauliā who as tiny specks of light populated the heavens. The ancient leader of the stars was called Swastixos and from one horizon to the other, as hapless leaves blown from the scared oak, many were scattered indiscriminately across the sky. Others joined to form constellations that illustrated, celebrated, and honored the greater gods; such as Per̃kwū̂nas Wezimas or Per̃kwū̂nas' chariot and Lawos (the Lion), Leo. The brightest of the Lāuksnai were Sėimāna (the North Star), Polaris; Ažukas (Per̃kwū̂nas' Goat), Capella; Mērgā (the Maiden), Spica; and Skalanas (the Hound), Sirius. The Lāuksnai also included other deities known as Dawsokriwi, which were comets or the ‘Staff of Heaven,’ and Atvaras a minor god that represented meteors. The Lāuksnai were not directly worshiped as individuals, as a group they were honored and served an important role in that they provided a backdrop on which more significant deities performed thier annual rounds; marking the proper time to change pastures, sow, harvest, feast and celebrate the seasons.


    __Aswiniai___________________________
    Although one may offer a long list of twin-gods found throughout Indo-European cultural ideology, of special interest here is the twin gods known as the Aswiniai (ahsh-VI-niaye). The Asvieniai were at the same time virile young brothers and horse gods betrothed to the sun goddess Sauliā; one symbolized by white for sunrise named Lougos (LOWK-ohs), and the other sunset personified by darkness called Wakaros (va-KAY-rows). The similarity of the Asvienai in name and myth, to the Vedic Ashwini, indicates that its inclusion within Baltic cosmology is of great antiquity. Moreover, this myth is similar to the twin Latvian horse gods, which on a larger scale was actually an abstraction of solar seasons. In turn, these gods are roughly analogous to the Greek Dioscuri, the twin sons of Zeus; Kastor and Polydeukes who may be better known by their Latin names of Castor and Pollux.


    __Bûrwalkai___________________________
    The Bûrwalkai (buhra-VAL-kaye) were a set of lesser gods that watched over and protected the house and home, as well as related domestic activities. These included Dimstipatas (dim-STI-pah-tas) the 'protector' or 'lord of the farmstead,' and his consort was Dimste (DIM-stay). Other deities included Raugopatis (raow-KUH-pah-tas) the 'Lord of Beer,' Siraplarānkās (surah-PLA-rah-kahs) the 'Sliver Armed,' Glabawas (glah-BOW-ahs) god of threshing barn’s hearth, his sister Glabāni (glah-BAY-ney) goddess of the family hearth, and Nume (noo-MAY). Another was the all knowing Dalā (dah-LAY), meaning fate; the goddess of giving and taking of goods and property, childbirth, spinning, weaving, and sowing.


    Heroes, Holymen, and Sacred Places


    Another important religious group was composed of the mythic semi-divine heroes of the Late Bronze and Early Iron ages. Represented by interwoven oral traditions that abstractly recalled their exploits, during the EB2 time frame, some were venerated and viewed as intermediaries of both the gods and humanity. However, the true mediators between the divine and natural world on the one hand and humankind on the other were the holymen, both male and female. Recruited from the ranks of the nobility, these were priests and priestess well-schooled in the arts of song, verse, and the types of subtle persuasion that win the heart and mind. In fact, within the bounds of tradition and society, they were the practitioners and architects of religious ideology; of which, the relevance to mankind was explained by ritual and the sacred place.


    Heroes


    __Klokīsplēsos___________________________
    Based on folklore, Klokīsplēsos (klo-KISS-pleh-sohs) represents a semi-divine hero similar to the Greek Heracles and Germanic Beowulf. His mother was Moška, the Bear goddess, from who he possessed bear-like ears, which were seen as the source of his great strengthand. As a youth, unarmed he killed a bear by ripping its jaws apart with his hands. Later in life he fought a series of battles against enemy hosts, giants, monsters, gods, and goddesses; befriends other heroes, and in due course visited the underworld and Pekla, the abode of Pikūlos. After returning to Sirdazemē (middle-earth) he married Lamtē̂, the goddess of foresight and fate. Nonetheless, despite having fate on his side, his many victories, and efforts to overcome numerous tests and trials, due to pride he was eventually tricked, disfigured, defeated, and utterly destroyed. Finally, because his tribe was unable to recover the hero's body for proper buria, in great shame he was deigned an afterlife.


    __Sowius___________________________
    Traditions tell that while hunting in the forest the hero Sowius (soh-VI-osh) killed a wild boar, due to his great skill and strength. On this beast he and his nine sons soon feasted, however the boar had been divine. Upon learning of this transgression Per̃kwū̂nas resolved to destroy the hero and all of his sons. Yet, Sowius managed to convince Per̃kwū̂nas to spare his sons, but in turn he would serve Pikūlas the lord of the dead, as the Wredigalis for killing the boar. Although angry about the terms of the agreement, he nonetheless descended until through the ninth gate of Pikla, followed by his three eldest sons, where Pikūlas prepared a place for him among the Weles, or spirits of the dead. On the first night Sowius told his first son to bury him in the ground, but after waking in the morning he complained that reptiles and worms bite him all night. On the second night he told his second son to bury him in a tree trunk. Yet there all that night he was bitten and stung by insects. Therefore, on the third night he asked his oldest son to thrown him into a fire. In the morning Sowius rejoiced that he had slept so sweetly. Thereafter his sons returned to Sirdazemē, as he remained in Pikla to help prepare the dead for burial and lead them to the underworld.


    __Kalwelas___________________________
    Kalwelas (KAHL-veh-lahs) seems to have been a son of Pikūlas and a mortal mother who has been all but lost to history. This is based on his moniker, which includes the Old Prussian kaltun- (to beat or incuse) and -veles (another term for the underworld); thus meaning 'Hell's Hammer.' It was a general belief that the first smith was Kalwelas who had emerged from Pikla as the semi-divine hero that taught humankind the arts of mining and metallurgy. His central story relates that after living among humans for a time, for dipping too close to the southern horizon, his father Pikūlas imprisoned Sauliā within a huge edifice of solid ice. With the warmth of the sun greatly diminished the earth slowly began to grow colder each day. Finally Kalwelas offered his enormous hammer, which was used, and the goddess was soon released. Somehow, Kalwelas' hammer was carelessly tossed and as a fiery ball of metal it fell to earth. However, through the course of this story Sauliā's fiery cart appears to have been lost. So finally, Kalwelas quickly set to work building Sauliā another divine chariot, from the remains of his magic hammer, which was soon finished and tossed back into the heavens. Thereafter, Sauliā returned to daily race across the sky unencumbered and all was right in the world.


    Holymen


    __Prawidai, Burtamitā, and Waidila ___________________________
    The Prawidai represent individuals that were skilled in the arts of prophecy, divination, and magic. They were not Drûwoi, in that they typically were not members of the nobility. However, they were seen as important intermediates between common folk and the divine or natural world. In this respect the Prawidai, meaning 'foresight,' were in fact freelance prophets that divulged specific aspects of the near future to those that offered the proper gift. They preformed this service by way of the Burtamitā and Waidila. The Burtomitā, literally meaning ‘lot casting,’ represents an art where a collection of Rowan Wood twigs were tossed onto a large white cloth several times. Thereafter the diviner would interpret what could be recognized as randomly made runic symbols. The Waidila, meaning 'magic,' was a method whereby spells, potions, brews, and tonics were used by a diviner to induce the telling of the future.


    __Drûwoi___________________________
    The Drewoi signified an informal office wherein individuals of the lesser nobility, both male and female, served as minor priests or shaman that were schooled in the arts of persuasion, medicine, and foresight. Upon direction they physically established and maintained the shrines, altars, holy groves, temples, and preformed all the domestic activities associated with religious pursuits. On a more personal level, because of their perceived relationship with the gods, the Drewoi were also the caretakers of the spiritual and psychological wellbeing of the general population. In the military realm the Drewoi also served as standard bearers and were identified by a large Rowan Wood staff.


    __Kriwai___________________________
    The most senor Drewoi of great knowledge and held in high esteem often served as the high priest or priestess of a particular cult. They were known as Kriwai and were identified by the symbol of office; a tall Rowan Wood staff with a misshapen head. The Kriwai garnered somewhat more authority than the common Drewoi, as far as the founding and maintenance of shrines, altars, holy groves, and temples. These high priests often distributed or administered the proceeds of successful wars or commercial enterprises donated to the state. Finally, largely as a matter of prestige and influence, a Kriwas typically accompanied elder noblmen that were members of the cult they represented.



    Temple Complex


    Sacred Places


    __Shrines and Altars___________________________
    In this context the Swintuwa (Shrine or Scrinium) is a sacred or holy place, which was dedicated to a specific deity, ancestor, hero, or a similar figure, at which they were venerated or worshipped. Shrines typically included idols, relics, or similar objects associated with the venerated figure. A shrine at which votive offerings were made can also be called an Aukuras. By definition an Aukuras (Altar or Altare) is any structure upon which a sacrifice or votive offering are made for religious purposes. Altars are usually found at shrines, but they can be located in temples or other sacred places where religious ritual takes place.


    __Holy Groves___________________________
    The Indo-European concept of the sacred or holy grove as a symbol of constitutional authority and national identity is a relatively common feature found throughout Europe to include the Baltic region. In Courland for example the local nobility preserved pre-Christian traditions associated with three such religious sites well into the 16th century. These and many others have been documented in local folklore, place names, historic records, and maps. For example an interesting description of rituals practised at one such holy grove in Courland was written by Reinhold Lubenau, a traveler that visited the area at Christmas in 1586. Of special interest to our review is that these holy groves were called ‘Elka’ or ‘Alkas.’ In fact, the Old Lithuanian words elkas and alká literally mean the 'holy grove.' The similarity between these Baltic expressions and Tacitus’ use of ‘Alcis,’ as the name of the religious site he described, can by no means, be entirely coincidental.


    __Temples___________________________
    Early pre-Roman period temples appear to be represented by the sanctuary recently identified at Sławsko Wielkie, in the Kuiavia region of modern Poland. This complex was centered around a small temple; a rectangular building with a floor of compacted and fired clay, while the roof was supported by a colonnade of wooden posts. At the center of this structure was a cylindrical-shaped altar. The burials of sacrificial animals (of dog, goat, sheep and pig), stones of specific shape, pottery discs, and an isolated pit containing a human sacrifice were scattered around the temple. The entire area constituted a sacred precinct (Swints or Sacrum), which was fenced off from the general surroundings (Paprestas or Profanum). Four temples of this kind, probably used in succession, were found at the Sławsko Wielkie settlement. The origin of this type of temple complex may have been the Hellenistic world, via the Celts. Nonetheless, they appeared in the Kuiavia region during the second century BC and seem to represent what was called a Ramowa, in the late Medieval period.



    Last edited by cmacq; 12-30-2010 at 11:30.
    quae res et cibi genere et cotidiana exercitatione et libertate vitae

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    RABO! Member Brave Brave Sir Robin's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    Its a wonderful Christmas gift!

    Amazing that so much information about the Lugiones could be found and brought together. All very interesting material and I am impressed to say the least. Now with the Lugii and Boii, Central Europe will be a lot more interesting.

    On a side note, I all take it that their banner is one of the first Occultus banners which was shown but given up on by the community?
    Last edited by Brave Brave Sir Robin; 12-25-2010 at 07:02.
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    Member Member stratigos vasilios's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    Have a Merry EB Christmas indeed!!! I would have never guessed this faction, but it is a perfect fit for the map! Great work EB team, my hat off to you. Amazing work

    Spoiler Alert, click show to read: 
    EDIT: Is this the right one?
    Last edited by stratigos vasilios; 12-25-2010 at 09:13.
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    wow that was alot of information on a region that i thought was fairly unknown at that point in history!!! Spectacular job on the presentation of the preview!!!!!

  11. #11

    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    WOW If i ever make a paper on this, may i use this in my source index XD ?

    MAAAAAANNN this does make my decision what to play first more complicated :( tho with the lack of pics it's probable that the lugians win, as I wanna see their stuff^^
    "Who fights can lose, who doesn't fight has already lost."
    - Pyrrhus of Epirus

    "Durch diese hohle Gasse muss er kommen..."
    - Leonidas of Sparta

    "People called Romanes they go the House"
    - Alaric the Visigoth

  12. #12
    EBII Hod Carrier Member QuintusSertorius's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    So the Sweboz/Suebi now have some competition in Germania? That should change the dynamics there for the better.
    It began on seven hills - an EB 1.1 Romani AAR with historical house-rules (now ceased)
    Heirs to Lysimachos - an EB 1.1 Epeiros-as-Pergamon AAR with semi-historical houserules (now ceased)
    Philetairos' Gift - a second EB 1.1 Epeiros-as-Pergamon AAR


  13. #13
    urk! Member bobbin's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    Quote Originally Posted by Brave Brave Sir Robin View Post
    On a side note, I all take it that their banner is one of the first Occultus banners which was shown but given up on by the community?
    Correct.


  14. #14
    Guitar God Member Mediolanicus's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    Fantastic work on putting together this faction and this amazing preview. I thank you cmacq and the EB team!
    __________________

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  15. #15
    busy mercenary Member darius_d's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    Amazing level of detail. I love this language map, it's worth more than 1000 words. Great preview.

  16. #16
    Hallooooo!! is someone there? Member J.R.M's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    Oh grea!!!!! awesome as always.. Thx for the Christmass gif!!!



    Ahora mas que nunca, FUERZA CABROS!! ¡Viva Chile! Thrash till Death!

  17. #17
    Member Member fightermedic's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    now that one is rather unexpected
    never heard of those guys before
    well let's have some read then!

    funny sidenote: i received Tacitus' Germania as a christmas gift yesterday
    Last edited by fightermedic; 12-25-2010 at 19:40.
    Gott mit dir, dem Bayernvolke,
    Daß wir unsrer Väter wert,
    fest in Eintracht und in Friede
    bauen unseres Glückes Herd;
    Daß der Freund da Hilfe finde,
    Wehrhaft uns der Gegner schau,
    Wo die Rauten-Banner wehen,
    Unsre Farben – Weiß und Blau!

  18. #18

    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    Thank you very much. I knew it would be worth checking on Christmas Day!

    Not my favourite area of the map and it never will be but a cracking level of detail! Really enjoyed it and from a game play perspective I think it is a great faction.

    Will this faction be surrounded by the uber rebels from EB1? (sorry if this is answered in the preview but family matters make my time limited today)

    Peace be with you. Unless you are playing EB which would make it a dull game.

  19. #19

    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    An amazing job the team once more performed. Many thanks.
    from plutoboyz

  20. #20
    That's "Chopper" to you, bub. Member DaciaJC's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    Bloody amazin' Christmas gift. Brilliant work, team.
    + =

    3x for this, this, and this

  21. #21
    COYATOYPIKC Senior Member Flatout Minigame Champion Arjos's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    Never expected this faction, never expected so many informations about them...
    The EB team still kicks asses ^^

  22. #22
    master of the wierd people Member Ibrahim's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    darn....that was a thorough preview.

    pretty units too.
    I was once alive, but then a girl came and took out my ticker.

    my 4 year old modding project--nearing completion: http://www.twcenter.net/forums/showthread.php?t=219506 (if you wanna help, join me).

    tired of ridiculous trouble with walking animations? then you need my brand newmotion capture for the common man!

    "We have proven, beyond a shadow of a doubt, that if we put the belonging to, in the I don't know what, all gas lines will explode " -alBernameg

  23. #23
    Member Member WinsingtonIII's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    WOW! That may be the most extensive faction preview yet! Great work as usual, and amazing job finding so much information on an area that is poorly documented!
    from Megas Methuselah, for some information on Greek colonies in Iberia.



  24. #24
    Mmmm, Antares is tasty! Senior Member Alien Attack Champion Nightbringer's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    That is a truly enormous amount of information!
    You guys should seriously put all the faction previews and other descriptions together and make a history book. This stuff is just fantastic!
    Moderator of The Throne Room
    “Being a Humanist means trying to behave decently without expectation of rewards or punishment after you are dead.” ― Kurt Vonnegut
    "Education: that which reveals to the wise, and conceals from the stupid, the vast limits of their knowledge." ― Mark Twain
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  25. #25

    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    Woah! I was always interested knowing more about that part of the world. Excellent choice and thank you for this amazing preview!
    ξυνòς 'Evυáλιoς κaí τε κτανéoντα κατéκτα
    Alike to all is the War God, and him who would kill he kills. (Il. 18.309)

  26. #26
    Member Member Captain Jazzy's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    Lovley Christmas present, just need to read it all. Brilliant work as always guys, keep it up. :)



    ..........................[

  27. #27

    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    A great read indeed, thank you. I was hoping for, but not expecting, a faction in that area. Even thought my hope was satisfied with the inclution of the Boii. Now, this is just fantastic! :)

  28. #28
    Member Member Anakuj's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    Amazing! Just amazing EB Team!

    Thank you for this preview!

    Could you post here (or in a PM) the exact sources, please? I can't read long paragraphs on computer screen, but printed papers and documents are OK (I study archeology, so i have acces to many libraries).

    Thank you!



    Ongoing campaigns:
    XGM: Seleucid Empire.
    Finished Campaigns:
    Vanilla RTW: Brutii (short).
    Failed:
    Not yet fortunately!

  29. #29
    Member Member Paltmull's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    Nice Christmas gift! Crazy amount of information :O The Lugiones will surely make an interesting addition gameplaywise.

    Spoiler Alert, click show to read: 


  30. #30
    Sovereign of all England! Member Donkey Kong Champion Arthur, king of the Britons's Avatar
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    Default Re: Preview: The Lugiones

    Amazing work indeed.


    King Arthur's Court at Camelot

    Spoiler Alert, click show to read: 


    Marble bust of Arthouros the Divider, first man to pass a Koinon Law since the foundation of the Alliance.


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