1066

[Dîn-Heru]

I wanted my 500th post to be more than my normal spam http://www.totalwar.org/forum/non-cgi/emoticons/biggrin.gif . So I decided to post a project I had about the year 1066. It is quite large and therefore I will begin while my post count is 492. (images from the project will not be posted.)

Here goes:

Prolog

This is a project about the year 1066 AD.
1066 was the year of the Norman Invasion of England.
Which resulted in the end of Anglo-Saxon England,
and made England part of continental Europe.

What was the background for the conflict, what happened in this year that ended with a Frenchman on the throne of England?
What went on in this deciding year of English history?


Introduction

January 5th 1066, Edward the Confessor died without an apparent heir to the throne of England.

Harold Godwinson, Edwards’s brother-in-law and Earl of Wessex, ascended the throne the following day, on January 6th, claiming that Edward on his deathbed had appointed him to be his heir. The manner in which he had himself made king was by being summoning the Witan, the council which elected the new king, right after Edward’s death so that the northern Earls and other members from central and northern England, who were his chief political rivals, could not attend. Thereby the Witan consisted only of friends and supporters, and Harold was elected to be king. But Harold was not the only contender to the crown.

Across the English Channel, in Normandy, William the “Bastard”, Duke of Normandy claimed that he had been made heir in 1051.

And in Norway, Harald Hardraada, was persuaded by Harold’s brother Tostig, who bore a grudge against his brother for not backing him when he was disposed as Earl of Northumbria in 1065, to invade England and reestablish Viking rule over England.

With three claimants to the English throne, the scene was set for a three way conflict that would determine the future of England.

Key personalities

William I the Conqueror

Born 1027 Died 9th September 1087

Titles: Duke of Normandy, King of England and
Count of Maine

Family relations: Son of Duke Robert I of Normandy and Herleve (also known as Arlette).
Great-grandson of Duke Richard I, whose daughter Emma was married to Ethelred II of England and mother to Edward the Confessor.
Biography
William was the illegitimate child of Duke Robert and Herleve, and was therefore called the Bastard by his contemporaries, born in the town of Falaise. In the night of his conception, his mother is said to have dreamt that a tree grew from her stomach. The tree grew so big that the shadow from it covered all of Normandy and England.

In 1035 his father went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, as penance after allegedly having poisoned his brother Richard. Before he left he made his barons swear fealty to the young William. Duke Robert died on his journey in Nicea. And at the age of seven, William became the new Duke of Normandy.

Several guardians had been appointed; four of these were murdered in attempts on William’s life. And he spent his childhood on the run with his uncle Walter, rarely sleeping two nights in the same bed.

When William was 15, his overlord, King Henry I of France knighted him. And in 1047 until 1055 he began to secure his rightful inheritance, by defeating rebels, including his cousin Guy of Brionne, and his former ally, King Henry I of France.

When he was in his twenties William married Matilda, daughter of count Baldwin V of Flanders. Together they had 8 children.

In 1051, William visited London and his cousin Edward the Confessor. Edward, who was childless, promised the throne of England to William. The promise was reaffirmed, (at least in Norman sources), in 1064 by Harold Godwinson, when he visited Normandy.

And when Edward died and Harold ascended the throne in 1066. William began to prepare an invasion, and on the 14th October 1066 William defeated Harold at the battle of Hastings, and was crowned on Christmas Day.

It took several years, about six, to subdue the English, but there was also trouble in Normandy. In 1079 he fought his own son Robert in hand-to-hand combat, and was wounded in the hand. From 1080 onwards he fought French incursions, and in July of 1087 he was wounded in a battle near Mantes. And on the 9 September 1087 William I the Conqueror died. He was buried in the abbey of St. Stephen in Caen. His grave was later desecrated by French rebels in 1562 and 1793 and is today marked by a simple stone slab.

[Dîn-Heru]

Harold II Godwinson

Born about 1020 Died October 14th 1066

Titles: King of England, Earl of Wessex, Earl of East Anglia

Family relations: Son of Godwin Earl of Wessex and Gytha. Gytha was the great-granddaughter of Harald Bluetooth of Denmark. His sister, Edith, was married to Edward the Confessor. Brother to Tostig

Biography
In 1045 Harold was made Earl of East Anglia and remained so until 1051, when he followed his father into exile in Flanders. The next year he returned and aided his father in regaining power. The 15th of April 1053 his father died and Harold became Earl of Wessex. With this Harold was the most powerful man in England, second to the king.

In 1062-63 Harold conducted successful campaigns against the Welsh leader Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, gaining much glory and solidifying his reputation as an able general.

In 1064 he travelled to Normandy, as an emissary of Edward the Confessor to William Duke of Normandy. During the crossing Harold was shipwrecked on the coast of Ponthieu, and became a captive of the Count of Ponthieu. William arranged for Harold’s release. Harold, now under a debt of honour, spent a summer fighting alongside William against the Bretons. Before Harold returned to England, he swore an oath upon sacred relics to uphold William’s claim to the throne, relinquishing his own claim.

Soon after Harold had become Earl of Wessex, his three brothers also gained titles. Tostig became Earl of Northumbria. In 1065, the inhabitants of Northumbria rebelled against his tyrannical rule, and chose Morcar, brother of Edwin Earl of Mercia, as their lord. Edwin and Morcar were Harold’s main political enemies. Edward the Confessor sent Harold to solve the conflict through diplomacy. Harold managed to avoid a civil war, but he could not save Tostig his Earldom. This made Tostig a mortal enemy of Harold. Tostig was exiled and sought refuge with his wife’s half-brother, Count Baldwin of Flanders, and began plotting on how to regain his Earldom.

5th of January 1066 Edward the Confessor died, and Harold had himself made king. To secure the support of the Earls of Mercia and Northumbria in the upcoming struggle, he married their sister, Aldyth.

On the 19th of September Harald III Hardraada of Norway and Tostig landed with their invasion force near the village of Riccall near York. Harald and Tostig defeated the Earls Morcar and Edwin at the battle of Fulford, and set up camp by Stamford Bridge. When Harold learned that the Vikings had arrived he gathered his forces and rushed the 200 miles north in five days. He caught the Vikings by surprise and defeated them.

During the celebration dinner Harold received news of William’s arrival and returned south.
They met near Hastings, and after 8 hours of fighting on October 14th, Harold is struck by an arrow and then cut down by Norman knights. The last Anglo-Saxon king was dead. His grave is unknown.


Tostig Godwinson

Born 10?? Died September 25th 1066

Titles: Earl of Northumbria (1055-1065)

Family relations: Son of Godwin Earl of Wessex and Gytha. Brother to Harold.

Biography:
He went into exile with his father in 1051. In 1055 he became Earl of Northumbria. He partook in his brother’s campaign against the Welsh in 1062-63.

In 1065 his subjects in Northumbria rebelled and declared him an outlaw. Because his brother, in his eyes failed to aid him, he became a mortal enemy of Harold and sought revenge, from his exile in Flanders. When Harold ascended the throne in 1066, he conspired with Harald Hardraada of Norway, and in September of 1066 they invaded England. They were defeated at the battle of Stamford Bridge. And he was slain along with his Norwegian allies, and was buried in York.

Edward the Confessor

Born 1003 Died January 5th 1066

Titles: King of England

Family relations: Son of Ethelred II the Unready of England and Emma, daughter of Duke Richard I of Normandy, who was William the Conqueror’s great-grandfather. Half-brother to Hardecanute of Denmark and England. Brother-in-law to Harold Godwinson.
Biography
In 1013 the Danes invaded England and Edward was forced into exile. But returned the next year and negotiated his father’s reinstatement. But when his father died in 1016, he was once again forced into exile in Normandy, and grew up among his mother’s relatives.

His mother married the new Viking king of England, Canute the Great, and together they had a son, Hardecanute. Hardicanute became king in 1035. In 1041 Edward was recalled to Hardicanute’s court. And when Hardicanute died in 1042, Edward became king.

One of Edward’s first actions was to deprive his mother of her possessions. In 1045 he married Edith, daughter of Earl Godwin of Wessex. But the marriage did not produce any offspring, because Edward had taken a vow of celibacy.

Edward surrounded himself with Norman friends, to the displeasure of the English nobles. And he even made a Norman, Archbishop of Canterbury. After a dispute with Earl Godwin in 1051, Earl Godwin raised an army, but the other nobles did not wish a civil war so Godwin was banished. Godwin returned the next year, and Edward was forced to give back Godwin’s lands and title. And this made Godwin more powerful than previously, this was shown when Stigand became the new Archbishop instead of the Norman, Robert of Jumièges.

Edward’s greatest achievement was the construction of Westminster Abbey, which was consecrated at Christmas in 1065. And when Edward died 5th of January 1066 he was buried in it. He was canonized in the 12th century, and his feast is on October 13th.

Harald III Hardraada(the Ruthless)
Born 1015 Died 25th of September 1066

Titles: King of Norway, Manglavites, Spartharokandidatos (his Byzantine ranks, the latter is the higher of the two)

Family relations: Son of Sigurd Syr and Aasta. Half-brother to Olaf II, the Saint.

After the battle at Stiklestad in 1030, Harald went abroad and ended up in Constantinople, where he joined the Varangian Guard. He became their commander and served under Empress Zoe, and fought against the Seljuk Turks. He returned to Norway in 1042, and fought against Olaf’s son Magnus, his nephew. He and Magnus became joint rulers in 1046 and when Magnus died in 1047, Harald became sole ruler. Harold Godwinson’s brother, Tostig convinced him to invade England and claim the throne in 1066. And on the 25th of September 1066 Harold found his end in the battle at Stamford Bridge. The last true Viking king died a warrior’s death.

[Dîn-Heru]

How could William claim the throne of England?

William was a Norman, a Frenchman, not an Anglo-Saxon like Edward the Confessor. Nor was he of royal blood or even a legitimate child, and known as the Bastard by his contemporaries. But still he ended up on the English throne, how could this happen?

There are three reasons that William could claim the throne: Family relations, an oath of fealty and papal blessing.

In 991 Ethelred the Unready married Duke Richard I of Normandy’s daughter, Emma. Emma was William’s great-aunt, she was also King Edward’s mother. Making William and Edward distant cousins. The fact that William was also a Norman, may have prompted Edward to appoint William his heir, when he fell out with Godwin in 1051. And even though Edward actually did not have the right to appoint an heir, it was the Witan who were supposed to choose the new king. But naming ones heir was the Norman style of succession, and to William this meant that he was next in line no-matter what a council of English nobles decided.

In 1064 Harold Godwinson was shipwrecked of the coast of Normandy, allegedly. He became a prisoner of the Count of Ponthieu. The Count of Ponthieu was one of William’s vassals, and William, seeing a chance to portray himself as a magnanimous leader, arranged for Harold’s release. But Harold was not allowed to return home immediately. After spending the summer fighting for William against the Bretons, Harold took, probably under coercion, an oath to uphold William’s claim, and not to claim the throne for himself. And to make matters worse, Harold had to take the oath upon sacred relics, meaning that he would face eternal damnation should he break the oath.

This oath was also the basis for William’s third reason. When Harold ascended the throne in 1066, William sent an envoy to the Pope to get papal support for his venture. William acquired papal blessing, and the Pope even sent a banner to be carried in battle. This made William’s invasion into a form of crusade.

THE YEAR 1066

Timetable of 1066

January:

5 - Edward the Confessor dies
6 - Harold Godwinson is crowned as Harold II
ca 9 - William and Tostig learns of Harold’s actions
ca 13 - Harald Hardraada and the Pope receive the news about Edward’s death and Harold’s coronation.

Late February, early march:

- Harold travels to Northumbria and Mercia, to gain the support of the Earls Morcar and Edwin. He marries their sister Aldyth during his visit.

April to mid summer:

- Tostig harasses the south-east coast, using hit and run tactics. Is defeated by the Earls Edwin and Morcar in mid-summer, flees to Malcolm III of Scotland and takes refuge with him.

Early May:

- Haley’s Comet is visible

All summer:

- Harold keeps his army, the Fyrd, in readiness, expecting an invasion while the weather is right for crossing the Channel.

August:

12 - William’s preparations are complete, and he gathers his ships at the mouth of Dives and waits for favorable wind.

September:

8 - Harold is forced to disband the Fyrd.
12 - Harold withdraws his fleet from the Isle of Wright to London. Many ships are lost in a storm. William sets sail. He loses a few ships, but is able to gather the fleet at St. Valery-sur-Somme for repairs.
15 - Harald Hardraada and Tostig reach the Nortumbrian coast. And burn the town of Scarborough
18 - Hardraada reaches the Humber River, and sails up to the village of Riccall.
19 - Hardraada’s fleet anchors near Riccall.
20 - The battle of Gate Fulford. Harold sets out from London to York.
24 - Harold arrive at the town of Tadcaster, 10 miles south of York.
25 - The battle of Stamford Bridge
28 - William lands at Pevensey Bay.
29 - William takes Hastings.

October:

1 - Harold learns that William has invaded.
5 - Harold arrive back in London
11 - Harold leaves London, and travel to Calbec Hill.
13 - Harold arrive at Calbec Hill and begins to deploy his troops along Senlac Ridge.
14 - The battle of Hastings
Late October - William conquers Dover, Canterbury and Winchester, before London surrenders.

December:

25 - William is crowned

[Dîn-Heru]

The events from January to September

Edward the Confessor dies and Harold ascend the throne
On Christmas Eve of 1065 Edward the confessor became ill. So ill that he was denied the chance to see his life’s work, Westminster Abbey, be consecrated. And on the 5th of January 1066 he died. Present at his deathbed were his wife, Edith, his brother-in-law, Harold, and the Archbishop of Canterbury, Stigand. Before Edward died, he is supposed to have uttered these words: “Into Harold's hands I commit my Kingdom.”

Edward was buried in Westminster Abbey the next day. That same day Harold summoned the Witan, a council of the English nobility responsible for electing a new king when the old one died without an apparent heir. But this was not an ordinary Witan, Harold made sure that the Witan consisted solely of his friends and supporters. The result was given, and on the 6th of January, Harold was crowned as Harold II of England.

Harold’s situation
Harold was not of royal blood, and was seen by much of the English nobility as a usurper and a commoner. Harold’s main political enemies were the Earls Morcar and Edwin of Northumbria and Mercia. To make things worse, their sister, Aldyth, was the widow of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, the former Prince of Wales, whom Harold had defeated in 1063. This made almost every part of England, except Wessex, less than friendly to Harold.

These problems was only on the island, across the Channel, William was furious. And Harold’s brother, Tostig, saw his chance to regain his earldom, and began contacting people who could aid him in this venture. Tostig first contacted Sweyn Estridson of Denmark, but he would not have anything to do with the conflict. So Tostig instead turned to the king of Norway, Harald Hardraada, who willingly agreed. Harold faced two invasions, and had little, if any, support from his two most powerful earls.

Because of his rather precarious situation, Harold married Aldyth in early march, hoping to secure the aid of the Earls Morcar and Edwin in his upcoming struggle with Duke William.

A Bad Omen
Near Easter, in early May, a “long haired star” appeared in the sky. The “long haired star” was in fact Halley’s Comet. The appearance of the Comet, was seen as a bad omen for Harold, a sign that forebode his downfall.

William’s actions
William learned of Edward’s death and Harold’s coronation around three days after they took place, (around January 9). He was infuriated; in his eyes Harold had taken his rightful place on the throne, and broken his holy oath to support William’s candidature as heir to the throne.

William’s first actions were to obtain support, moral and political, from other European rulers and most importantly, from the Pope. Secondly to raise an invasion force and build a fleet that could transport the army across the Channel.

To gain the papal support, William sent an envoy to the Pope. The envoy portrayed Harold as an enemy of the church and a violator of sacred relics. The envoy also promised that England would become a fief under the papacy, although the promise was denied to have been made throughout William’s life. As a result the Pope sent a papal banner and a relic to be carried in battle, and Harold was excommunicated. The Papal blessing made William’s invasion into a crusade and this had enormous effect on the recruitment to the army.

Recruitment to William’s army was based on the promise of English land to those who followed William on his quest. And because this venture was effectively a crusade, those who died in battle were guaranteed a place in heaven, having died fighting for God’s will. By May William had a fleet of around 700 vessels, which would transport around 10000 troops and around 3000 horses.*

Tostig’s machinations and Hardraada’s claim to the throne
Tostig found out about what herald had done around the same time as William. Seeing a chance to regain his earldom he began plotting. It is very likely that William was supporting Tostig in his machinations, but Tostig also contacted others who could be interested in becoming king of England. First he approached the Danish king, Sweyn Estridsson, but Sweyn did not see himself fit for the task and declined. Tostig then turned north, to Norway and Harald Hardraada.

Hardraada’s claim to the throne was even more tenuous than those of William and Harold. In 1039, king Magnus the Good of Norway made a pact with Hardicanute of Denmark and England, which said that in the event that one of them should die without an heir, the other one would inherit the throne. And in 1042 Hardicanute died without an heir, and Magnus became king of Norway and Denmark. But he was unable to assert his power in England, where Edward the Confessor ruled. In 1046 Magnus became joint ruler with his uncle Hardraada, but Magnus died in 1047 and Hardraada became sole ruler. Hardraada was unable to take power in Denmark, because the Danish chieftains were against him. And Tostig used this, claiming that he could convince the English lords to support Hardraada. So Hardraada, as Magnus’ heir agreed to partake, based on the promised made to his nephew two decades earlier.

In April Tostig set out from Flanders with a fleet of 60 ships, and began a series of raids against the south-east coast of England. Using hit and run tactics he kept Harold’s forces busy, so that they did not accomplish much else than chasing Tostig around. In mid-summer Tostig sailed up the river Humber. The Earls Morcar and Edwin defeated him and with only 12 ships he fled to the safety of Malcolm III of Scotland.

The Fyrd
Harold in response to Tostig’s raids called the fyrd to arms. The fyrd was the people’s army and consisted of untrained and ill-equipped peasants, who were duty bound to serve king and country for two months at a time. And their sole strength was in their numbers. Harold kept the fyrd in readiness throughout the summer, expecting that William would invade while the weather was right, but on September 8 he was forced to disband it.

Meanwhile, on August 12, William had completed his preparations, and was waiting for favourable wind to cross the Channel. And on the September 12 William, along with Harold’s fleet at the Isle of Wright, set sail. But a storm destroyed many of Harold’s ships and a few of William’s. William was therefore forced to relocate at St. Valery-sur-Somme. This however proved fortunate as the sailing distance was shortened from 100 miles, to 65.


* These numbers vary from 600-800 ships, 7000-12000 men and 1500-4000 horses. So I have used a number in-between.

[Dîn-Heru]

The battles of Fulford and Stamford Bridge

Hardraada’s journey
Around the same time as the Channel storm on September 12, Hardraada completed his preparations and departed Norway with a fleet of 300 ships and 6000 men. After having been reinforced by Tostig and allies from Orkney and Shetland, Hardraada reached Scarborough on the Northumbrian coast on September 15. The city was burned, and Hardraada sailed down to the river Humber. They reached the river on the 18th, and proceeded to sail up the river. The followed the Humber and then up the river Ouse, to the village of Riccall. Riccall lay 12 miles from York, the capital of Northumbria, which was the primary objective for Hardraada. The fleet anchored on the 19th and the Vikings disembarked on English soil. The Vikings put on their armour, and commenced to march on York.

Morcar and Edwin
Both Morcar the Earl of Northumbria and his brother the Earl of Mercia, Edwin, were present at York when the news of the burning of Scarborough arrived. They quickly mustered all the forces they could. This was not an easy task, as many in Northumbria were of Viking descent, and Edwin could not provide more troops than those who were with him York. On the 20th of September Morcar and Edwin marched to intercept Hardraada and Tostig. The armies met at Gate Fulford one mile south of York.

The Battle of Gate Fulford
The battleground was a marshy meadow, situated between the river Ouse and the track that the Vikings were following. Morcar had reached Gate Fulford a few hours before Hardraada, and was thereby able to establish a defensive positioning of his army.

The army’s right flank was the river and its left was the marshy meadow where manoeuvring was close to impossible. The army was several ranks deep, on the flanks and in the deeper rows was the Fyrd, while the professional soldiers, the Housecarls were in the centre and the front rows.

Hardraada’s deployed his army opposite of Morcar’s. Hardraada and his best men were in the centre of the line and on the left stretched to the eastern bank of Ouse. Hardraada’s less experienced troops were positioned on the right flank, where the ground was less solid, and they were only expected to hold their ground against the English, while Hardraada’s centre and left flank was to break the English. Hardraada’s force was about 5000 men strong, as 1000 was left behind at Riccall to guard the ships, Morcar’s forces was lesser in number.

The battle began with each army advancing upon the other. As thousands of men clashed a fierce hand-to-hand combat with swords, axes and spears commenced. Hardraada’s weak right flank was pushed back by Morcar’s stronger fyrdmen, and the situation began to look desperate. Hardraada ordered his left flank to stretch further towards the centre while still keeping strong on the left flank. Hardraada then took the men under his personal command in the centre and attacked the fyrdmen who were pushing back his right flank. The fyrdmen was struck by surprise by a more numerous and experienced force, and as a result they were quickly defeated and driven into the bogs. The morale of the right flank was renewed and they joined the carnage. Seeing the success on the right flank gave a morale boost to the rest of the Viking line, while the English became demoralized. And after being pushed back near the river, the entire English line collapsed and they routed the field.

Aftermath of the battle
With this battle York fell to Hardraada and Tostig. The city surrendered on the terms that Hardraada would be given complete control over the city and that its inhabitants would recognize him as king and aid him in his struggle against Harold. In return the Vikings would not loot or damage the city.

As a guarantee that the agreement would be kept, Hardraada demanded 100 hostages. The date for their delivery was set to Sunday 25th of September at Stamford Bridge.

The Battle of Stamford Bridge

Harold’s March
Harold was in London when he learned of the burning of Scarborough, this was on September 20. What should Harold do? Should he rely on Morcar and Edwin to defeat Hardraada or should he personally travel north to crush the invasion? Harold decided to travel north. On the 20th of September he set out from London to Yorkshire with an army of 6000 men.

York is around 200 miles (300km) north of London, already on the 24th he reached Tadcaster 10 miles south-west of York. This means that his army travelled an average of 50 miles (ca 80km) a day.

Harold’s plan
In Tadcaster Harold learned of Morcar’s defeat and the subsequent events at York. Harold knew that he therefore had to rely on the troops he had brought with him, but he also knew that his presence in the area was unknown to the Enemy. And this was of pivotal importance. Harold was also informed of the delivery of hostages that were to take place the next day.

Based on the intelligence gathered, Harold conceived his plan of attack. He would first re-establish his rule over York the next morning, then he would march to Stamford Bridge to catch Hardraada and Tostig of guard.

The Battle of Stamford Bridge
Harold arrived in York in early morning on the 25th. After settling matters in York, Harold then proceeded to march on Stamford Bridge, but stayed just out of sight and waited for the Vikings to arrive.

The Vikings were camped on both sides of the river Derwent. Because it was a warm day, the Vikings had removed their armour, not expecting anything but a “peaceful” delivery of hostages. Furthermore, only two-thirds of Hardraada’s forces were present, as the last third was left behind at Riccall to guard the fleet.

Suddenly Harold and his army appeared on the hill north of the bridge. The Vikings were caught completely with surprise. Tostig advised Hardraada to retreat back to the ships, but Hardraada decided to stay and fight.
He dispatched a messenger to Eystein Orri, the commander of the force that was left behind at Riccall. Hardraada withdrew most of his men who were on the north side of the bridge, except for a small rear-guard to slow the English advance.

The rear-guard quickly fell, except for a sole Viking who held back the English, wielding his axe like a man possessed. The English was not able to get past before an English soldier went under the Bridge, and thrust his spear upwards, killing the Viking. Thanks to the delay, Hardraada was able to set up a defensive line on a ridge 300 yards south-east of the bridge. With the bridge cleared the English pored over and formed a long line. The English charged the Vikings, who resisted. The Vikings then broke formation and attacked the English, but were attacked from all sides. Hardraada became enraged and charged downhill, at this point it looked as though the English would be routed. Then an arrow struck Hardraada in the throat, and he died. The Vikings retreated back to Hardraada’s battle banner, the Land-Ravager, which was picked up by Tostig. Now both armies regrouped and there was a pause in the battle. Harold offered clemency to Tostig and the Vikings, but they would have none of it.

Instead they set up a war shout, and the battle ensued. Tostig fell but the Vikings kept on fighting. When Eystein Orri arrived with reinforcements the Vikings were divided into small groups fighting back to back. The reinforcements were glad in armour and had hurried from Riccall, 19 miles (30km) away, on this hot day and were exhausted. Orri took charge of the banner, the Land-Ravager, and the battle was again fierce, and became known as Orri’s storm. But because of their exhaustion, the English easily defeated them. When Orri fell, the Vikings caved and fled back to the fleet at Riccall under English pursuit.

After a brief spell of fighting near the ships, the surviving Vikings surrendered and were allowed to travel back to Norway. They left in 24 ships, they had come in 300.

Harold learns that William has invaded
After the battle Harold and his men gathered in York to celebrate their victory. After having buried Tostig in York, Harold decided to stay a few days in York. This was in order to give his troops a chance to rest before marching back south, as well as to tie up loose political ends. Then, in the evening of September 30, he received the worst possible news. 300 miles to the south, William had landed at Pevensey, on the Hastings peninsula on the 28 September.

Harold, and all of his housecarls that could find a mount, departed York in the early hours on October 1. Harold rushed to London, where he arrived on October 5. This was the second forced march in two weeks, each march lasting five days. In London Harold began enlisting soldiers, calling upon the fyrd in Wessex, and his brothers’ earldoms to come to his aid.

[Dîn-Heru]

The Battle of Hastings

William lands at Pevensey and occupies the Hastings peninsula
William had been waiting for favourable wind to cross the Channel since the storm on September 8. The fleet was gathered at St. Valery-sur-Somme almost directly south of Pevensey. On the 26 September William was still waiting, He arranged for a procession, and the statue of St. Valery was carried to the sea. And on the 27th the wind changed. The fleet sailed by mid-afternoon. William sailed in his flag-ship, the Mora. The Mora was the largest ship and a personal gift from his wife, Matilda of Flanders. From the top of its mast hung a lantern and the fleet was to follow this through the night.

Because the Mora had a larger sail it arrived at Pevensey ahead of the rest of the fleet in the morning of the 28th. When William went ashore he fell, but quickly rose and said: “Behold, I have grasped England with both hands.”, (or words to that affect).

William had landed without opposition, although a few ships had been blown of course and landed at Romney where they were hacked to death by the locals. The rest of William’s army proceeded to set up headquarters in an old Roman fort. The next day William captured Hastings, in order to secure the peninsula. He had a fort built, this was not such a daunting task at it might seem, because the fort had been pre-fabricated in Normandy. William learnt of Hardraada’s invasion and that Harold had travelled north, realising that his best chance for victory lay in luring Harold into battle as soon as possible, William ordered the countryside to be terrorized. William’s soldiers ravaged the countryside, something which infuriated Harold as the area was in his old earldom.

Harold’s actions before the Battle
On Tuesday the 10th Harold felt that he had sufficient troops to contain William in the Hastings peninsula. He intended to do so by occupying Caldbec Hill, on which the only road off the peninsula lay. And on the 11th Harold left London for Caldbec Hill. He arrived in the afternoon of the 13th at "the Hoar Apple Tree," a well-known landmark on Caldbec Hill. He had 4000-4500 men with him and was met by another 3500 fyrdmen. Upon arrival he began deploying his army along the 800 yards long Senlac Ridge, thereby blocking the only exit from the peninsula. Harold continued this through the night, as more men arrived sporadically through the night.



William’s actions before the battle
Harold’s arrival caught William by surprise and he had to quickly gather his men, who were out scavenging for food. William decided to attack Harold the following morning, while his forces were still tired from the march. That William began to prepare himself for battle surprised Harold, who believed that William would be hesitant to engage him so soon.

Just after dawn on October the 14th 1066 William marched his army to Telham Hill, six miles from his camp and one mile from Senlac Ridge. There is a rather amusing irony with the use of horses in the battle. While Harold’s Housecarls rode to battle and then dismounted to fight on foot, William’s knights walked to the battlefield leading their chargers with their armour and weapons across the saddle, then mounted upon arrival to the field. By 9 am his William’s preparations where complete.

Before battle commenced, William is supposed to have made the following speech:
"You fight not merely for victory but also for survival. If you bear yourselves valiantly you will obtain victory, honour and riches. If not, you will be ruthlessly butchered, or else led ignominiously captive into the hands of pitiless enemies. Further, you will incur abiding disgrace. There is no road for retreat. In front, your advance is blocked by an army and a hostile countryside; behind you, there is the sea where the enemy fleet bars your flight. The English have again and again fallen to the sword of an enemy; often, being vanquished, they have submitted to a foreign yoke; nor have they ever been famed as soldiers. The vigorous courage of a few men armed in a just cause and specially protected from Heaven must prevail against a host of men unskilled in combat. Only be bold so that nothing shall make you yield, and victory will gladden your hearts."

The scene was set for a battle that in eight hours would determine the future of England.

The Battlefield and the armies
Harold’s army was positioned in a shield- wall atop Senlac Ridge. The Ridge was flanked on both sides by deep ravines, and several streams and marshes. This ruled out any possibility of a flanking manoeuvre, Harold had to be defeated by a frontal uphill-assault. William faced a very formidable challenge, even though the slope was relatively gentle.

Harold’s army consisted mainly of the Fyrd, their weapons varied from poor quality swords and spears to farming tools. Out of a total number of around 8000, 6000 was fyrdmen. The other 2000 were housecarls and thegns, (nobles). They formed the first ranks of the shield-wall, and were heavily armoured. Their weapon of choice was the two-handed-battleaxe, which in the right hands could cut a man and his horse in two, with a single blow. In addition they carried a round or kite shaped shield and a sword. Harold had few, if any, archers.


William was divided in three; William’s personal army of Normans commanded by his half-brothers Bishop Odo of Bayeux and Robert Count of Mortain, his Breton allies led by Alan Fergent Count of Brittany, and French and Flemish troops led by Roger de Montgomerie. The Bretons were on the left flank, the Normans were in the centre, and the French were on the right flank. William’s army was at this point also around 8000 men strong. Both the Breton division and the French were around 2500 men strong, while William’s Normans were 3000 strong. Unlike the Saxons William used cavalry and archers in the battle. The cavalry was the most heavily armoured forces. The knights and foot-soldiers used javelins, swords, axes and maces. Their shield was kite shaped, giving protection to the entire body. Each army was further divided into archers, cavalry and foot-soldiers

The Battle
The battle began shortly after 9 am, when William’s archers moved within 100 yards of Harold’s line and began firing their arrows directly at the shield-wall. This however caused few casualties. Next the infantry began to ascend the hill. As they approached the English a hail of javelins spears and stones rained down upon them, killing many. Those who engaged the shield-wall felt the determination of the Housecarls and were forced to fall back. William’s plan was to wear down the Saxons by letting the three troop types attack in a successive coordinated manner. According to this plan he sent in the cavalry to take their turn against the Saxons. But the slope severely reduced the force of their impact, and their charge was withstood by the sheer physical strength of the Saxons.

On the left flank the Bretons, had advanced ahead of the rest of the Norman line. The Bretons were overwhelmed by the fierceness of their opponents, and their attack turned into flight. They streamed down the hill pursued by the ill-disciplined fyrdmen. This panic caused the entire Norman line to retreat. At this time a rumour spread that William was dead. The reason was that William had been knocked of his horse. He quickly grabbed another mount, lifting his helmet he rode in front of his troops shouting:”Look at me, I am alive and will be victor”. William ordered a group of knights to attack the fyrdmen that now threatened his flank. The fyrdmen was no match for the professional knights and all but a few were slaughtered without mercy.

There was now a pause in the battle. During this break the archers’ quivers were refilled, and the Bretons were reorganized so that they would not get ahead or behind the Norman line. The Saxons used this break to move their dead to the back of their ranks, while the Norman dead were piled in front of the shield-wall to further impede the Norman assault. Shortly before noon, the second assault began.

The second attack began as the first. The archers fired at the wall, then the infantry engaged the enemy, before the cavalry took their turn. This tactic was resulted in many casualties for William, but the Saxon line was also thinning, among those fallen were Harold’s brothers Leofwin and Gyrth. He repeated this tactic through the afternoon, but he also used another tactic, feigned retreat.

William sent groups of 20-30 knights to attack the enemy, after a brief spell of fighting they would retreat followed by fyrdmen. Suddenly the knights would turn and massacre their pursuers.

The battle had lasted all day, and the men were growing exhausted. Nightfall was due to set in an hour, at 6 pm. If William did not defeat Harold within dusk he would be defeated. With this on his mind, William decided to conduct a last assault. He ordered his archers to fire in a high trajectory. As the arrows rained over the Saxons, distracting them and causing a great deal of casualties, a Norman hit squad approached Harold’s standard, the Wessex Dragon. Four knights penetrated Harold’s command post, where Harold moments earlier had been struck in the eye by an arrow. One knight ran his lance through Harold’s chest, another cut of his head, a third disembowelled him, while a fourth chopped of his leg. Harold’s death signalled William’s victory.

The fyrdmen turned to flight, but the housecarls and thegns kept on fighting to the last man. The sun was setting and the light was fading. Norman knights pursued the routing fyrdmen, but unaware of the steepness of the slope many plunged to their deaths. Others who reached the bottom were slaughtered by fyrdmen who saw a chance to inflict a small vengeance on the Normans. Seeing this, William called of the pursuit, and spent the night on the ridge. The battle had lasted eight hours and
the Bastard had now become the Conqueror.

[Dîn-Heru]

Aftermath of the Battle

Following the battle
Perhaps as many as 4000 died in the battle. The next day the Norman dead were buried, while the English dead were left on the field to rot. And apparently their bones could still be seen several decades later. Harold’s body met a different fate than the rest of the English. It was so mutilated that it had to be identified by his mistress, Edith Swan neck, through two body marks that only she knew. After identification, Harold’s body was moved to William’s camp. Harold’s mother, Gytha, is said to have offered her son’s weight in gold for the body. But William is said to have refused the offer, and no-one knows with certainty where his body was laid to rest. After having taken care of the dead, William returned to his fort near Hastings. This was done to give his injured soldiers time to recover, as well as to receive supplies and reinforcements from Normandy.

William waited a week for emissaries from the English, who were to offer England’s submission. But, no-one came. Instead the English proclaimed Edgar Aetheling as their king. William decided to capture England’s three capitals, Canterbury (the religious capital), Winchester (the political) and London (the financial).

William first proceeded to Dover, after having inflicted his vengeance upon the town of Romney, where some of his men had been hacked to death when they landed there by a mistake during the invasion. Dover fell without much resistance and was plundered. While in Dover his army came down with dysentery, but because time was crucial and William pushed on to Canterbury, where he himself suffered from diarrhoea. Canterbury surrendered without resistance, and was not plundered. William now continued to London. Finding London to be too strong at this time, William instead turned south to Winchester, which also surrendered to him. William decided to approach London form the north. He travelled north to Wallingford, where he turned south. Shortly after he turned south, he was met by an English delegation at Berkhamstead. Prominent nobles in the delegation included Earl Edwin of Mercia, Earl Morcar of Northumbria and Edgar Aetheling. The delegation submitted themselves completely to William, and urged him to have himself crowned because they were used to obey a king.

Coronation
The date of William’s coronation was set to Christmas Day 1066. It was to take place in Westminster Abbey, where Harold was crowned less than a year earlier. All of the English nobility, that was still alive, were present. It was supposed to be a strong display of the new rule, but it nearly ended in tragedy.

A French element had been incorporated into the ceremony. First the English Archbishop asked the congregation if they wanted William as their king. This was met by an enthusiastic; “Yes, yes, yes”. Then the Norman bishop asked the same question in French, and was met with an even more enthusiastic; “Oui, oui, oui“. But when the Norman guards, who were posted outside the church, heard shouting in a foreign language, they believed that it was treason. They set fire to the houses nearby and tried to storm the Abbey. Inside the church panic arose as people rushed to the exits, it was a scene of total chaos.

William’s troubles in England did not end with this, and he spent many years crushing various revolts.

But William was crowned on Christmas Day 1066. And the man who was born outside of marriage, who became Duke of Normandy at the age of seven, who spent his childhood on the run from his enemies, was now King William I, the Conqueror, of England.

[Dîn-Heru]

Results of the Norman Conquest

Buildings:

Tower of London
This landmark of London was commissioned by William to dominate the city. From its beginning it was meant as a royal stronghold in time of crisis, but not necessarily against outside threats. It has been a prison and place of execution, arsenal, mint, menagerie and today the crown jewels are kept here.

Battle Abbey and the town Battle
Battle Abbey was founded by William to commemorate his great victory. It was built on the site of the battle. Its high alter was placed on the spot where Harold fell. A village developed around the Abbey, it is called Battle and has 7000 inhabitants.

Social changes

Feudalism
With the Normans came a new social order, feudalism. Feudalism is a system where people received land and protection from a nobleman, in return they worked on his land and fought in his army. The nobles in William’s army were promised land for their contribution to the conquest. Because of this the old Anglo-Saxon nobles and clergy were replaced with Normans. This created a French upper class, while the Anglo-Saxons became second rate citizens.

Significant documents

The Domesday Book
The Domesday Book is a land survey. It is a detailed statement of lands held by the king and by his tenants and of the resources that went with those lands. It records which manors rightfully belonged to which estates, thus ending years of confusion resulting from the gradual and sometimes violent dispossession of the Anglo-Saxons by their Norman conquerors. It was moreover a 'feudal' statement, giving the identities of the landholders who held their lands directly from the Crown, and of their tenants and under tenants. In addition it was an excellent tool to determine how much tax could be collected, and a tribute to William’s political power and leadership. It is also a source for historians on this time period.

The Magna Carta
Under the Normans the king had extensive powers. In the 13th century the nobility became worried that their privileges would be reduced. They drew up the Magna Carta and forced King John to sign it in 1215. The document restricts royal power and is the foundation of the democratic form of government in modern Britain.


These are but a few of the consequences of the Norman invasion in 1066. The Norman invasion so altered the English society that one might claim that modern day Britain would have existed had it not been for William the Conqueror.


Epilog


This concludes this project about the year 1066.
A year where three large battles were fought,
a year where a new social order was introduced,
a year where four persons where called King of England.
The year where William the Conqueror conquered England,
and changed the course of English history.

The year 1066 was indeed a deciding year in English history.

Thank you for your attention.

[Nowake]

Good work, although it can be easily found everywhere http://www.totalwar.org/forum/non-cgi/emoticons/wink.gif

btw, you wrote this just for the 500th post? http://www.totalwar.org/forum/non-cgi/emoticons/joker.gif (because it seems you did it for the 501th, 502th etc. posts too)

[Dîn-Heru]

Actually it was for my English class.

These are my 493-500th posts http://www.totalwar.org/forum/non-cgi/emoticons/joker.gif

Funny how you should say that this can be found anywhere, my only source was the Internett. http://www.totalwar.org/forum/non-cgi/emoticons/joker.gif (copied something from a history book, but forgot that I had it, so it never appeared in the final text.) http://www.totalwar.org/forum/non-cgi/emoticons/joker.gif

[Nowake]

But do you really bother to make this kind of homeworks? I never do them, sothe teacher always engages into disputes with me.

[Dîn-Heru]

This was an important project, I counted almost as much as an all-day-test. We had a few months to do it. And it was well worth it as it secuered a 6 (top grade) in English. We got to work on it at school a few hours each week, but I actually did it at home, and relaxed when I was supposed to do it at school.

Although I have to admit that I wrote a "few" more pages than I originally intended and was supposed to write.

[Nowake]

Go figure http://www.totalwar.org/forum/non-cgi/emoticons/joker.gif

[Odinn]

A bad year for our nation http://www.totalwar.org/forum/non-cgi/emoticons/mad.gif

[Nowake]

Quote[/b] (Odinn @ June 22 2003,06:53)]A bad year for our nation http://www.totalwar.org/forum/non-cgi/emoticons/mad.gif
Yes, but you fought well http://www.totalwar.org/forum/non-cgi/emoticons/wink.gif

[NagatsukaShumi]

I can garuntee that 1066 was a much worse year for the English, I mean, we never got an Englishman on the Froggy Throne ever, we nearly did but Henry V decided to die of an illness, typical http://www.totalwar.org/forum/non-cgi/emoticons/rolleyes.gif

[Hakonarson]

I thought there was 1 or 2 Enlish Kings crowned in Paris during the 100 years war??

[deejayvee]

I think Henry VI may have been crowned but was unable to wield any power as he was a baby at the time. He was the only one to be King of France, but Edward III and Henry V both made claims to it (and hence the 100 years war).

As an interesting side-note, during the Crecy campaign, Edward III repeatedly sent messages to King Phillip VI, challenging him to single combat to decide the issue of the French throne. Phillip kept ignoring these, but then replied that he would accept if, instead of just fighting for the French throne, they fought for both crowns. Unsurprisingly, Edward III declined the offer.

[Demon of Light]

That would have made a hell of a fight. If it became a precedent, we'd all certainly look for different qualities in our leaders.

[Derfel Cadarn]

Deejayvee, you're wrong. It was Philip VI who tried to arrange battle; Edward accepted it, and the battle would be fought near Paris. But Edward III broke his word and fled north, before engaging any battle or getting near.

Also, Henry VI was not King of France; Henry V would only gain the crown if he outlived the French king, which he didn't, so his son didn't inherit any French crown since Henry V did not possess one.

Also, the reason the Hundred Years War started is more complex than just that Edward III declared himself King of France; he didn't really do so, in fact, until he allied himself with the Flemish, who were subjects to the King of France. To prevent the Flemish from being excommunicated by the Pope, Edward III declared himself King of France, so technically the Flemish would not be sinning http://www.totalwar.org/forum/non-cgi/emoticons/biggrin.gif
The war was already raging for a year or two, then. The real reason for the war was basically that Edward III refused to do homage to Philip VI for his French lands, ie Guyenne. The French Crown then confiscated his lands, and the war started.

[deejayvee]

Quote[/b] (Derfel Cadarn @ July 05 2003,04:15)]Deejayvee, you're wrong. It was Philip VI who tried to arrange battle; Edward accepted it, and the battle would be fought near Paris. But Edward III broke his word and fled north, before engaging any battle or getting near.

Also, Henry VI was not King of France; Henry V would only gain the crown if he outlived the French king, which he didn't, so his son didn't inherit any French crown since Henry V did not possess one.

Also, the reason the Hundred Years War started is more complex than just that Edward III declared himself King of France; he didn't really do so, in fact, until he allied himself with the Flemish, who were subjects to the King of France. To prevent the Flemish from being excommunicated by the Pope, Edward III declared himself King of France, so technically the Flemish would not be sinning http://www.totalwar.org/forum/non-cgi/emoticons/biggrin.gif
The war was already raging for a year or two, then. The real reason for the war was basically that Edward III refused to do homage to Philip VI for his French lands, ie Guyenne. The French Crown then confiscated his lands, and the war started.
No, I'm not wrong. Edward III kept making the offer and Philip kept rejecting it and issued the counter-offer that he would only accept the challenge if it were for both crowns. Then Edward III backed out.

In regards to Henry VI, I couldn't remember if he'd actually been crowned, so I used the words "I think Henry VI may have been crowned". The key parts here are "I think" and "may".

In regards to the beginning of the HYW, remember that the English and French fought regularly for centuries before it started. However, by declaring himself King of France, Edward III escalated the normal border warfare into a battle between dynasties.