Province: Bithynia
Traveller's Log
Coming ashore in the small harbour of Myrleia, a Ionian colony of Kolophon, the traveller has arrived in Bithynia. To the West lays the mouth of the Rhyndakos River, issuing from Lake Apolloniatis. At its North-Easternmost shore is located the town of Apollonia, standing in front of several islets dedicated to Apollon. Further South-East stands Mount Olympos, marking the border with Mysia. Moving towards the coast to the North-East Daskyleion can be found, which used to be an important Satrapal capital. Then the Traveller comes to Kios, a Milesian colony eponymous for the gulf where it stands. Above it stands Mount Arganthonos, where Hylas, one of the Argonautai, was abducted by nymphs, never to be seen again. To this day the locals celebrate a festival, marching in procession and calling for Hylas. Striking inland stands Lake Askania, surrounded by a very fertile and large plain, albeit not at all healthful in summer. Here Basileus Antigonos Monophthalmos founded a polis, named after himself, to overlook and control the area. Later Basileus Lysimachos of Thraikia repaired and embellished this polis, renaming it Nikaia in memory of his first late wife. The latest architectural techniques were employed, ensuring a quadrangular plan so that the four gates could be seen from the centre of Nikaia. Back on the coast of the Propontis, there used to be the polis of Astakos, rased by Lysimachos. The gulf where it stood was named after it and in the vicinity there are the Pythia thermal springs, sacred to Apollon. Farther to the North-West, at the Thraikios Bosporos, on a barren and sandy soil stands Chalkedon. Colonized by the Megareis, it was called "Habitation of the Blind" by the oracle of Delphoi, when other colonists enquired Apollon about new settlements. To the North there's another Megarian colony, Chrysopolis, whose excellent position allows it to control and block the Bosporos. Turning eastwards and following the coast of the Pontos Euxeinos, the traveller encounters the promontory of Kalpe. It is a sheer cliff that runs out into the sea, with an harbour under its west-facing side. This is quite a fertile place, with freshwater springs and a great deal of various kinds of timber. This promontory extends inland as an hilly ridge, with thick forests by the coast and several villages in the mainland. These stand on excellent soil, producing barley, wheat, all kinds of legumes, millet, sesame, a good number of figs and plenty of grapes, which make a sweet wine. Continuing up the coast there is the mouth of the River Sangarios, watering much of Bithynia and whose winding marks the boundary with Galatia. Farther North-East lays the town of Kieros by Mount Hypios, an Herakleian colony. In the interior stands Bithynion, whose territory is the best pasturage for cattle and where an excellent cheese is produced. While the surrounding ridges separate Bithynia from the land of the Galatai.
Geography
Bithynia is split into two major geographical areas, by the Sakarya River (ancient Sangarios). To the East there are thickly wooded highlands characterized by snowy winters and very warm summers. While to the West the climate is milder, but humid. This area possesses prosperous and well watered plains. The northern coast is steeper and somewhat linear, unlike that of the Marmara Sea (ancient Propontis). The latter has in fact two larger gulfs, crenellated by several promontories. This is also the most populous part of Bithynia, favoured by important trading harbours, three lakes abundant with fish and the close proximity of both agricultural and mineral resources. The mountainous features close to the Black Sea (ancient Euxeinos) prevented the construction of roads, which had to run a considerable distance inland, thus sea traffic was prominent. But this was monopolized by Herakleia Pontika, relegating Northern Bithynia to sporadic anchoring. However the pastoral communities of the hinterland thrived, taking care of their flocks of sheep and herds of goats. Mount Uludağ (ancient Mysian Olympos), covered in snow well into March, was roamed by cervids and some wolf packs.
The People, Society and Government
The Bithynoi are a Thracian speaking people, who crossed over to Mikra Asia. They are described as wearing fox-skin caps, dressed in tunics with colourful long coats and mid calf boots made out of fawn-skin. They also carried javelins, Pelte shields and Sica daggers. However they gradually adopted Hellenistic simple tunics. The Bithynoi lived in self-sufficient villages and towns, but contacts with large neighbouring polities and especially encounters with invading armies, fostered coordinated efforts. Such bands would be led in defense, on raids or to attack Hellenic colonies, with the ultimate goal of imposing tribute or curb their expansion. This allowed powerful Bithynoi to establish at least nominal authority over the various communities. These dynasts, in typical Thracian fashion, built Tholoi tombs already in the late 5th century BCE. Their successors later established themselves as Hellenistic Basileis and, just like the Makedones, used urban foundations to control newly won territory. This was done with a keen eye towards political and economic reasons for the major centres, but the majority of settlements were built following military needs. Thus the royal family presented itselves as Philhellen, but the Bithynian villages remained untouched. Nevertheless the Hellenistic poleis flourished and celebrated scholars were born and studied there. The Bithynoi venerated Kybele and there are also evidences of the cult of Bendis. She was an healing deity, likely developed from the tradition of noble priestess-healer of the Early Iron Age. Also the Hellenes perceived them as worshipers of Ares, Dionysos and Artemis, but that is a superficial observation of their passion for fighting, drinking and hunting. Although the Dionysiac implications of ecstasy, fertility and rebirth were very much part of Bithynian culture, no individual deity embodied these aspects. The Bithynoi also kept the Thracian tradition of a tribal ancestor-hero-protector, which may have been the highest personal concept in their religion. By the Roman Era it had gained the semblance of Zeus Hypsistos (Most-High God), which later favoured the transition to Christianity.
History
Little is known about the Bithynian migration to Asia. The Homeric tradition recorded of Thraikioi, led by Rhesos, coming to help Priamos in the Trojan War. Similarly the Bithynian oral tradition, recounted by Herodotos, held that the Bithynoi used to live in the Strymon Valley (whence Rhesos came from) and were later defeated by Mysoi and Teukroi. This forced them to settle in what would become Bithynia. Thus the testimonies might offer a glimpse about a mercenary enterprise gone awry, which left a group of Thraikioi stranded in Asia. As hypothesised by the Bithynian born historian Arrianos, these people, surrounded by enemies, had no means to sail away or cross back to Thraikia and found refuge in the forests of North-Western Anatolia. Whatever the case by end of the 8th century BCE the Bithynoi were well established, capable of assembling in enough numbers to raid and detriment Hellenic attempts of colonisation. However at the turn of the 7th century BCE Kimmerioi bands were causing upheaval in Mikra Asia. It is possible that the Bithynoi suffered heavily by these attacks, because from this time Hellenic colonies managed to survive and grow. Nonetheless the Bithynoi recovered, but by 560 BCE Kroisos of Lydia could consider Bithynian leaders as his tributary subjects. This also poses a problem, for Herodotos mentions Thynoi as Lydian tributaries as well. A tribe that in his time lived in European Thraikia, however neither Lydia, nor the Bithynoi had a navy and it is puzzling how these land based polities could have exercised authority across the Propontis. Therefore these Thynoi must have been living in the vicinity of the Thraikios Bosporos, on the side of Asia. However Dārayavahuš of Pârsa (Darius I) around 515 BCE, formalised Bithynia as a dependency of Daskyleion, which provided, along with other regions, a tribute of 630 talents. The Bithynoi could do very little to oppose this situation: only two years later the Khšāyathiya Khšāyathiyānām (King of Kings) in person led a vast army to Chalkedon. This force had come to invade Skythia and while the fleet was securing a crossing of the Istros River, the Samian engineer Mandrokles bridged the Bosporos with pontoons. At this time the Thynoi, or the people that would later be named such, crossed with the Persian army. Their linguistic affinity with the other Thracian tribes, was definitely invaluable and Dārayavahuš might have pushed for their resettling. Later the campaign in Skythia failed and mixed reports reached Chalkedon, whose citizens even considered burning down the bridge. But Dārayavahuš made it back and punished the Chalkedonioi by destroying their temple to Apollon. Persian suzerainty had to be generally reasserted and Utāna was ordered to take over Chalkedon and Byzantion in 510 BCE. However the Hellenes at the Bosporos later supported the Ionian Revolt. In 493 BCE, upon hearing of Miletos' fall and of an incoming punitive expedition by the Ponnim fleet, the Chalkedonioi decided to flee and settle in Mesembria on the Thracian coast of the Pontos Euxeinos. In 480 BCE the Bithynoi were levied to supply a contingent for the invasion of Hellas. During the aftermath Persian authority steadily diminished in Bithynia, due to Hellenic intervention from the Propontis to the eastern Mediterranean. As a result the Bithynoi experienced the rise of native centralisation of power and around 440 BCE Doidalsas of Bithynia succeeded in unifying his people. Now Bithynia was de facto independent and Doidalsas mounted expeditions against Chalkedon, forcing the latter to appeal to Athenai. Thus Klerouchoi were sent to keep in check the Bithynoi. The Tholos tomb of Iznik (ancient Nikaia), dated to this period, likely belonged to Doidalsas, who established the ruling dynasty of Bithynia for the next 400 years.
The Persian response to this new situation was to set up a dependency of the Khšaçapāvan (Satrap) at Daskyleion, with headquarters in Kios. In 424 BCE the Athenian Strategos Lamachos was sent to the Pontos Euxeinos to collect tribute, but lost his ships due to a flood of the river where he had anchored. This compelled him to march inland across Bithynia to reach Chalkedon and his actions embittered relations further with the Bithynoi. They now were growing weary of Athenian expansion, being the only foreign power actively operating in their territory. In 410 BCE a reinstated Alkibiades set sail for Chrysopolis and set up a customs house, with a garrison imposing a 10% tax on cargos crossing the Bosporos from the Euxeinos. These dispositions alienated the Chalkedonioi, who revolted and allied with Sparta. Expecting to be put under siege, the Chalkedonion entrusted all their portable property to Boteiras, Doidalsas' son and successor. However in 409 BCE Alkibiades, with the Chalkedonian blockade in place, sent heralds threatening war against Bithynia, unless it handed over the possessions. Boteiras agreed and also stipulated a treaty of friendship. Meanwhile the Khšaçapāvan Farnavaz (Pharnabazus) had arrived from Daskyleion, to raise the siege of Chalkedon and the Spartan Harmostes (military governor) Hippokrates sallied out to catch Alikibiades on two sides. But Farnavaz, slowed down by the Athenian stockades, was too late and withdrew. Later in 408 BCE an agreement was reached, where Farnavaz would pay twenty talents and present Athenian ambassadors to the Khšāyathiya Khšāyathiyānām, while both sides pledged to respect the other's territory. However Dārayavahuš of Pârsa (Darius II) sent his son Kuruš (Cyrus the Younger) to support Sparta and in 405 BCE the Nauarchos Lysandros defeated the Athenian fleet. The following year Spartan garrisons were re-established at the Bosporos and Alkibiades, fearful of Lakedaimonian mastery in Hellas and the Aigaion, took all the loot he could, planning to offer his services to Pârsa. However he had to travel across Bithynia and Boteiras was more than happy to repay him, by plundering and capturing much of the Athenian's riches. In 400 BCE Oi Myrioi (The Ten Thousand) had reached Bithynia, but frustration had led to internal division. The Arkades and Achaioi, 4,500 Hoplitai strong, due to their numerical superiority thought that the army's survival was thanks to their efforts and now decided to march alone. Their plan was to disembark at Kalpe and make a sudden assault on the Bithynoi to seize any loot. At dawn they attacked the nearest villages, but the Bithynoi at first fled in order to regroup the available forces and then ambushed an Arkadian Lochos (military company) and annihilated it at a gully. Right after they rushed towards another Lochos and killed every single mercenary, except for its Lochagos (company commander) and seven men, who managed to escape. The remaining Peloponnesioi had, in the mean time, assembled at a hill where they spent the night. While the Bithynoi mustered all the neighbouring men and now not only Peltastai, but also Hippeis were called up. These resolutely encircled the hill and attacked from all sides, completely cutting off the Hellenes from any water. Thus the Peloponnesioi engaged in talks to set terms for a surrender. At the same time Xenophon had reached Kalpe, heard of their plight and rushed to their position setting ablaze as much territory as possible. This made his force appear large, but all he at were 1,700 Hoplitai, 300 Peltastai and 40 Hippeis. Nevertheless as soon as they finished eating and put out their camp fires, the Bithynoi figured a massive night attack was about to start and fled. From Kios had also arrived Spithradata and Rathina with a considerable force of cavalry and infantry. They had been sent by Farnavaz, who up until now was delighted to have Hellenes and Bithynoi fighting eachother. But he was now worried Oi Myrioi would try to descend on Persian territory once more. His generals cut down 500 Hellenic foragers and at night Bithynoi assaulted Xenophon's camp, emerging from the surrounding forest. The following day Spithradata, Rathina and the Bithynoi joined forces and defeated the Hellenic Peltastai, but avoided any close encounter with the Hoplitai. This counted as a victory for Xenophon, since he was in command of the battlefield and after setting up a Tropaion, he led his men away. Having made contact with friendly Hellenic traders and communities, they sold their booty, marched to Chrysopolis and crossed over to Thraikia. In 398 BCE the Spartan Derkylidas was conducting a war to liberate the Asiatic Hellenes, but agreed to an eight months truce with Farnavaz. So he set about pillaging Bithynia. There he was joined by Odrysai, sent by their Basileus Seuthes II, who was subjugating every Thracian tribe. These Odrysai instead of plundering, right away built fortifications, planning to gradually take over the land. Boteiras had kept a close watch on these activities, especially keeping track of the Hellenic raiding parties. After getting together all the Hippeis and Peltastai he had, Boteiras struck at dawn killing several men and all the Odrysai left guarding the booty. Which was recovered, the fallen were stripped of any valuable and as the Bithynoi came, they dispersed. In 395 BCE it was the Spartan Archagetes Agesilaos II, who was leading the war in Asia and after enjoying successes in Lydia moved for Paphlagonia. This was done at the behest of Spithradata, who had defected to him, promising him allies and resources there. They however decided to avoid any marching in Bithynia and sailed past it, disembarking at Kios. There Agesilaos set up quarters to conduct a punitive expedition against the Mysoi, with whom he had a score to settle. However when Spartan officers demanded Spithradata to hand over what he had brought from Paphlagonia to be redistributed, he felt insulted and defected back to the Persian side. In 389 BCE the Athenian Strategos Thrasyboulos was bringing about the resurgence of his polis' power, by re-establishing friendly relations at the Bosporos, secured by both Byzantion and Chalkedon.
In 387 BCE Āryabarzāna, who until now was holding Kios, succeeded his kinsman Farnavaz at Daskyleion. This was a temporary measure, because Farnavaz had been summoned to marry Artakhšaça of Pârsa (Artaxerxes II)'s daughter Apamā. In 378 BCE Āryabarzāna supplied the Spartan diplomat Antalkidas with ships, for they were good friends since the time Āryabarzāna acted as an intermediary for peace talks. After two years Boteiras of Bithynia died and his son Bas inherited the leadership of the Bithynoi. Some time later Farnavaz died as well and Āryabarzāna started to act as guardian for the underaged son of Apamā. However in 367 BCE he refused to relinquish his power in Daskyleion and joined Dātama, a Khšaçapāvan in open rebellion. Āryabarzāna at first was being hard pressed by loyal forces, but in 365 BCE secured assistance from Hellas, consisting of 8,000 mercenaries and thirty Triereis. This had been possible because Āryabarzāna had been the escort for the Athenian ambassadors, whom Farnavaz could not send to the royal court, and also thanks to his contacts in Lakonia. The new force, led by Agesilaos II in person, caused a reversal and soon all of Mikra Asia was in revolt. Mithradata, who had succeeded his father Āryabarzāna in Kios, tried to expand his family influence across the Euxeinos installing a Tyrannos in Herakleia Pontika by 364 BCE. But Klearchos, soon as he took power in Herakleia, imprisoned Mithradata for a ransom. There are no evidences of conflicts involving the Bithynoi, so Herakleia must have been a vital target for the rebels, because bypassing Bythinia had become the best course of action. Boteiras had made all too clear how invading it was not worth the effort and Bas made sure that status was preserved. In the meantime Āryabarzāna gifted Athenai the poleis of Sestos and Krithote, receiving in return Athenian citizenship for himself, his sons and an Hellenic subordinate. However Mithradata from the start had received orders from the Khšāyathiya Khšāyathiyānām to deal with Dātama and had been playing his part to gain the rebels' confidence. In 362 BCE he decided to act by seizing his own father Āryabarzāna, whom he handed over to Artakhšaça II for crucifixion, and requesting an audience with Dātama where he killed him with a concealed dagger. This allowed Artavazdâ, son of Farnavaz and Apamā, to finally take power as Khšaçapāvan at Daskyleion. While Mithradata likely joined Artakhšaça II's court, becoming effectively an hostage, for his brother Āryabarzāna II took over as governor of Kios. However in 356 BCE Artavazdâ revolted, because Artakhšaça of Pârsa (Artaxerxes III) had demanded the disbandment of private armies and mercenaries. Āryabarzāna II likely fought against the rebel, the latter supported by Athenai and Thebai. Isolated in Mikra Asia Artavazdâ had to flee in 352 BCE, seeking refuge at the court of Philippos II of Makedonia. In 337 BCE Āryabarzāna II died and his brother Mithradata II succedeed him, this was the third of Āryabarzāna's sons and there are no indications that the older Mithratada was reinstated or whether he was still alive. Mithradata II would actually have been guardian for Āryabarzāna II's son, another Mithradata, who was just 13 years old at the time. But the following year Makedonian troops invaded Asia and in 334 BCE the Ilarchos Kalas, son of Harpalos and first cousin of Antigonos Monophthalmos, was made Satrapes of Hellespontine Phrygia at Daskyleion. However in 326 BCE Kalas attacked the 71 years old Bas to annex Bithynia, but was soundly defeated and killed in battle. Bas died as well, whether in relation to the battle or not is unknown, and his son Zipoites took over the Bithynian leadership.
Following the death of Alexandros Megas and soon as the political situation seemed somewhat clearer, local dynasties could pick sides among the Diadochoi. Mithradata II kept hold of Kios and sided with Eumenes of Kardia, in whose army his nephew Mithradata served. However after the defeat at Gabiene in 316 BCE, Mithradata joined Antigonos Monophthalmos, living at the latter's court as a token of loyalty, while his uncle kept power at Kios. The following year Antigonos prepared to face a massive coalition of Diadochoi and sent his own nephew Polemaios to protect Anatolia from Kassandros. Upon reaching Bithynia, Polemaios discovered that Zipoites was besieging Chalkedon and Astakos. In the ensuing parley Polemaios obtained a cessation of hostilities and an alliance by all parties to Antigonos. Later Antigonos sported a policy of freedom for every polis and probably around 306 BCE, when he assumed the diadem of Basileus, Antigoneia by Lake Askania was founded. However in 302 BCE Basileus Lysimachos of Thraikia invaded and Mithradata II was suspected of contemplating treason. Thus Antigonos Monophthalmos ordered his execution and for his nephew Mithradata a similar fate was planned. But Demetrios, co-ruler and son of Antigonos, had become a good friend of Mithradata and warned the latter. With all haste Mithradata fled to the fortress of Kimista in northern Kappadokia, whence he would establish the Pontic kingdom as Mithradates I Ktistes (the Builder). Later in 301 BCE, with the death of Antigonos at Ipsos, Zipoites was free to resume his campaigns. He captured Astakos, while Chalkedon was saved by the intervention of Byzantion, alarmed by Bithynian power gaining access to the Bosporos. Zipoites was also encroaching on Herakleia Pontika's territory, but Lysimachos could not tolerate such a troublesome dynast at his doorstep. Astakos was rased and in 300 BCE Lysimachos refounded Antigoneia as Nikaia, becoming his stronghold against Zipoites. Nevertheless the Strategos sent to deal with Zipoites was killed and his successor did not fare any better, for he was repulsed. Bithynian independence was secured and in 297 BCE Zipoites proclaimed himself Basileus, founding Zipoition as his royal residence at the foot of Mount Lypedros, both unfortunately of unknown location. Later in 281 BCE Zipoites I sided with Seleukos I Nikator and helped defeating Lysimachos. The subsequent murder of Seleukos also absolved Zipoites of any obligation he had swore to abide. However Antiochos I dispatched his Strategos Patrokles to reassert Seleukid power in Mikra Asia. In turn Patrokles sent one of his officers, Hermogenes, to consolidate the Pontos Euxeinos' coast. In 280 BCE Herakleia Pontika surrendered upon hearing of the incoming army, thus Hermogenes turned his attention on Bithynia. However Zipoites ambushed him and annihilated the whole Seleukid army, but died the following year.
This unleashed a succession crisis between the eldest son Nikomedes and another son named Zipoites. The latter held sway over eastern Bithynia and was supported by his other two brothers. This Zipoites did not recognize Nikomedes' rule and concentrated on expanding his own domain at the expenses of Herakleia Pontika. Nikomedes, unlike his brother, was far more aware of the larger geo-political stage: he offered back to Herakleia Pontika all the territory conquered by his father, which was held by his brother, in exchange for an alliance. Thus Nikomedes gained Herakleian maritime skills and assistance from a professional fleet. Most of all, conscious of Antiochos I preparations for a personally led invasion, Nikomedes allied himself with Antigonos Gonatas of Makedonia. Nonetheless neither side engaged the other and the two Basileis reached an agreement, leaving Nikomedes isolated in 278 BCE. With very few options left, Nikomedes gambled a dangerous alliance with the Galatai, specifically the tribes of the Tektosages, Trokmoi and Tolistobogioi. Their warriors helped him defeat his brother, unite Bithynia and even expand it further inland, where Nikomedes founded the military colony of Bithynion. At that point, taking the acquired loot, the Galatai disbanded and settled in a land of their choosing, which was named Galatia after them. This granted Nikomedes momentary respite for Antiochos I would have to deal with the newcomers, spending his resources and men in the process. Now Nikomedes concentrated on his Phihellenic policy, founding Nikomedeia in 264 BCE where once Astakos stood, resettling the latter's survivors. This new capital on the Propontis brought commerce and a link to the Hellenistic world, with its culture. A statue of Nikomedes was erected in Olympia and sacrificies in his honour were performed at Kos, an island off the Karian coast. Nikomedes also pursued friendly relations with Makedonia and the Ptolemaioi. Thus around 250 BCE, nearing his death, Nikomedes named Ptolemaios II Philadelphos, Antigonos II Gonatas, Byzantion, Herakleia and Kios guardians of his children by his second wife Hetazeta. However his first born, by another wife, Zileilas had found refuge at Arsham I of Hayasdan's court. During the regency of her step-mother, Zileilas gathered an army, boosted by the Tolistobogioi and invaded Bithynia. The Bithynoi made the last surviving brother of Nikomedes I, whom the latter pardoned in the past, marry Hetazeta and rallied under his leadership. The neighbouring guardian poleis also sent reinforcements and at first they withstood any offensive, but by 246 BCE Zileilas had become Basileus. The guardians signed a truce with Zileilas, while Hetazeta and her sons fled to Makedonia. The new Bithynian Basileus engaged in further expansion, capturing Kieros, promoting urbanization there and at Bithynion. Then in 245 BCE Zileilas had his daughter marry Antiochos Hierax, who had claimed the Seleukid diadem, and exploited the latter's conflict to expand his influence. However in 228 BCE, defeated and without pay or loot to live off, the Galatai fighting for Hierax abandoned him and went on raiding, killing Zileilas in the process.
Thus Prousias I, Zileilas' son, became Basileus of Bithynia and right from 227 BCE munificently sponsored reconstructions at Rhodos. The island had been hit by a severe earthquake and Prousias planned on outdoing any Hellenistic Basileus regarding benefactions. This gesture granted Prousias much amity among the Hellenes and he went on instituting Soteiria games. However the Byzantioi refused to participate and even aborted the construction of statues they had decreed in Prousias' name. In fact Byzantion was ultimating the construction of fortifications at Hieron on the Bosporos. Thus in 220 BCE Byzantion imposed taxes on the traffic to the Pontos Euxeinos, causing Prousias to declare war against them. The latter was joined by Rhodos, although its fleet limited itself on blockading the Hellespontos. Right away the Bithynoi were successful in dismantling any stronghold, but news reached Prousias that Tiboites, one of Hetazeta's sons, was marching from Makedonia to claim Bithynia. Fortunately for Prousias his uncle died and the Bithynian Basileus hired nearby tribes in Thraikia, to prevent an easy march by any other reinforcements towards Byzantion. However Kavaros of Tylis, even though was exacting an 80 talents tribute from Bithynia, did not appreciate any neighbouring power getting supremacy of the Bosporos. And together with Rhodos was growing apprehensive of Prousias' imminent success. They pressed for a peace agreement that in 219 BCE brought back the status quo, compelling Prousias to give up all his conquests and lifting the Byzantine toll at the Bosporos. In the meantime Attalos I of Pergamon was fighting against Achaios at Sardis and had settled the Aigosages in the Troas. However these tribesmen started to raid Ilion and Abydos, which begged Pergamon for deliverance, but Attalos could not dispatch any force. Thus in 218 BCE Prousias took the initiative, perhaps to reinstate a good image among the Hellenes after his war with Byzantion, and slaughtered the whole tribe. Around this time Prousias also married Philippos V of Makedonia's half-sister Apama, establishing an alliance. Later in 208 BCE Prousias I sided with Philippos V in his war against the SPQR and their allies, bolstering the Makedonian fleet and invading Mysia the following year to force Attalos I to concentrate his army away from Makedonia. Eventually Philippos V signed a peace treaty, in the name of Prousias I as well, but in 202 BCE they now moved to expand in the Aigaion and Propontis. Prousias was particularly interested in Kios, which had fell in the hands of the Tyrannos Molpagoras, and together with Makedonian troops invested it. However Philippos V made sure that these additions to Bithynia were destroyed, but Prousias quickly refounded Kios into Prousa and expanded the port of Myrleia as the polis of Apameia Myrleia. These actions brought again Roman intervention in 200 BCE, but Prousias, either embittered by the Makedonian destruction of his conquests or simply too preoccupied with consolidating them against Pergamon, kept himself out of that conflict. In fact it seems that Prousias had managed to encroach in northern Mysia during the previous war. Around 190 BCE Antiochos Megas might have approached Prousias, after sufferring defeats in the Aigaion and losing control of it, hoping to gain his assistance against Pergamon. However Roman letters from the Scipiones and a Legatvs from the Propraetor Caivs Livivs Salinator, informed Prousias I that the SPQR had no quarrel with him. With such ease of mind the Bithynoi descended on Phrygia capturing large tracts of land and expanding as far as the River Rhyndakos in Mysia. However in 188 BCE the SPQR dictated that Prousias had to restore to Pergamon all of Mysia, the Bithynian Basileus complied, but at the same time granted asylum to Hannibal Barca, who joined Prousias' court. Unable to expand westwards and southwards, Prousias now moved against Herakleia Pontika retaking Keiros. Which was refounded as Prousa by the Hypios. The Bithynian assault continued with much success as far as Herakleia Pontika itselt, but during the siege one of Prousias' legs was broken and he had to be carried away. The Bithynian army fell back and Prousias was nicknamed as Cholos (the Lame), convincing Eumenes II of Pergamon that Bithynia could be invaded in 186 BCE. Ortiagontes, a chief of the Galatai, supported Prousias I Cholos, but in 184 BCE Eumenes II won a great victory near Mount Lypedros. Nevertheless the war still hung in balance and Hannibal Barca even forced Eumenes II back to his camp during a naval engagement, employing earthen pots filled with venomous snakes. Following the reversal Hannibal rallied the Bithynoi and won engagements on land against the Pergamenoi. At this point the SPQR intervened and arbitrated a peace agreement, whereby Prousias I ceded all his territorial gains around Mount Olympos to Eumenes II. To ensure Roman magnanimity the Bithynian Basileus also promised to hand over Hannibal, who in turn ended his life with poison in 183 BCE. One year later Prousias I Cholos died as well and his son Prousias II Kynegos (the Hunter) succeeded him.
Faced with the ever increasing Roman influence in Asia, Prousias II aligned his policy to Eumenes II's. Thus Bithynia supported, albeit negligibly, the war against Pharnakes I of Pontos. Which concluded in 179 BCE, mostly due to procrastination in the Roman diplomacy. Then Prousias II engaged in larger political networking: he offered the spoils of war to Apollon at Dydima, was honoured an equestrian statue at Delphoi and sent ambassadors to the Apteraioi in Krete. But most of all Prousias II married Perseus of Makedonia's sister Apama, cementing further the bond between the two royal houses. However, keeping a neutral stance to judge which side held the upper hand, in 169 BCE Prousias II dispatched five warships to help the Consvl Qvintvs Marcivs Philippvs in his Makedonian campaign. In the following years Prousias II attempted in every way to undermine Pergamon's standing and influence through diplomatic channels, with the help of envoys from Galatia as well. However this was due to Prousias II's misguided interpretation of Roman uneasiness towards Pergamese expansion as possible open hostility. Later in 156 BCE Prousias II Kynegos invaded Mysia, raiding along the way unopposed. Because Attalos II Philadelphos of Pergamon did not want to engage in open hostilities without Roman approval. Thus when the Roman commission requested an audience, Prousias II presented himself with his army in full force and rushed to Pergamon. Planning on capturing Attalos II himself, who shut himself in his capital. Unable to assault such a formidable polis, Prousias II's army went on looting temples and the countryside in Mysia. The SPQR limited itself on sending another commission to denounce Prousias II, who kept on raiding throughout 155 BCE. In the meantime Attalos II had assembled a considerable force, with the support of Mithradates IV of Pontos and Ariarathes V of Kappadokia. Now Roma dispatched allied forces to guard coastal fortifications, in order to prevent other polities to join Prousias II. At this point the Bithynian Basileus realized his cause was futile and accepted the conditions for peace, which made Bithynia a tributary state of Pergamon for the next twenty years as indemnity.
Prousias II eldest son, Nikomedes, was sent to Roma to establish beneficial relations with important figures and in 149 BCE to lessen the tribute. While the Bithynoi were growing restless of Prousias II's rule due to fiscal pressure. Nikomedes might have indeed followed these instructions, but he likely presented himself as the guarantor and returned to Bithynia hailed as Basileus by the Bithynian army and supported by Attalos II's troops. Gates were opened to the usurper, who had his father assassinated. At first Nikomedes II kept a subservient stance towards Pergamon, but eventually relations deteriorated and Attalos II successfully invaded Bithynia. However Nikomedes II's contacts in Roma affirmed his rights in the Senatvs and any gains by Pergamon were lost. The Bithynian Basileus also assumed the title of Epiphanes (god manifest) and introduced something of a state cult for the royal family. In 132 BCE Nikomedes II provided assistance against the pretender Aristonikos of Pergamon and in vain attempted to be granted northern Mysia by the SPQR. In 127 BCE Nikomedes III Euergetes (benefactor) succeeded his father and initiated a policy if not hostile, at least unfriendly towards Roma. For he had been hardpressed by the Roman collection of tribute and had failed, through corruption, to gain a favourable vote against a law that incremented said tribute. Around 113 BCE, in alliance with Mithradates VI of Pontos, Nikomedes III conquered a smaller portion of Paphlagonia. When the Senatvs' commission demanded the restitution of Paphlagonia, Nikomedes III renamed one of his sons as Pylaimenes (the traditional name for the ruler of Paphlagonia) and claimed that legitimacy had been restored already. This did not last long and eventually the bastard son, Sokrates, was removed as ruler. Later in 104 BCE the SPQR asked for allied contingents against the Kimbroi, but Nikomedes III Euergetes replied he had no none. Declaring how the Pvblicani (Roman tax collectors) had made the Bithynoi slaves, for the widespread poverty in Asia had unleashed bands of slavers in the neighbouring states. Although such depredations occurred, Nikomedes III still had troops and used them to capture Kappadokia, which was under the regency of Laodike. She was Mithridates VI's sister, but the Pontic Basileus desired a direct control of her domain. Thus she married Nikomedes III, whose expansion gave Mithridates VI just the excuse he was looking for and expelled them. In the following years the Bithynian royal couple begged for Roman intervention, which obviously never materialized. Having alienated any power capable of supporting him, Nikomedes III died in 94 BCE and his son Nikomedes IV Philopator, by the latter's first wife the Kappadokian princess Nysa, now set forth patching up relations with the SPQR. However Mithradates VI lost no time and dispatched his Strategos Archelaos with a massive army of 40,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry in 90 BCE to set up Sokrates as a puppet Basileus of Bithynia. The SPQR could not tolerate such an expansion of Pontic influence and the governor of Asia Caivs Cassivs was tasked in supporting Nikomedes IV. The following year with the help of Phrygian and Galatian reinforcements, the Roman army quickly cleared Bithynia and Kappadokia. Mithradates VI could only watch as pro-Roman Basileis took over his dependencies, executing Sokrates in the process. Now Roman authorities, who did not want to engage in open warfare with Pontos, incited Nikomedes IV to wage raids against Mithradates VI. The Bithynian Basileus had to give in, hard pressed to cover the debts he had promised along his restoration. These raids went on unopposed, for such acts permitted Mithradates VI to rally his subjects and people of Mikra Asia against Roman sponsored oppression, starting a major war. The Bithynoi were assigned to the vanguard, but although outnumbering the Pontic outriders, they were defeated by superior tactics and the use of scythed chariots. Nikomedes IV fled to regroup with the Roman contingents, but the Pontic onslaught was unstoppable and a small detachment of Sauromatae was able to charge and cut down the larger opposition. Bithynia for the next three years belonged to Mithradates VI, only then by a peace agreement with Lvcivs Cornelivs Svlla was Nikomedes IV, who had fled to the Italian Peninsula, back in power. Around 80 BCE Caiv Ivlivs Caesar joined Nikomedes IV's court, asking for naval assistance against pirates in the Aigaion and after two years sailed to Mytilene, where he was successful. However Bithynia had been severely weakened and its resources depleted, thus in 74 BCE dying Nikomedes IV bequeathed it to the SPQR.
In fact the late Basileus only had a daughter by his wife of the same name Nysa, a kinswoman of Laodike. The latter had wanted this marriage and Nysa might have had already a son, Lykomedes. Who now claimed the Bithynian diadem, but was unsuccessful. In any case Mithradates VI of Pontos had returned and invaded once again Bithynia, whose defenses were being organized by Caivs Ivlivs Caesar. But the Pontic army and fleet struck for the Bosporos, where the Consvl Marcvs Avrelivs Cotta held Chalkedon. The Bastarnai of the vanguard managed to break the long chain of bronze that guarded the harbour entrance, allowing the Pontic fleet to swarm in. Four Roman vessels were defeated and resistance collapsed, thus Mithradates VI was free to captured the remaining 60 Roman warships. Such overwhelming victory turned the local support in favour of the Pontic Basileus and the Roman troops had to regroup in Phrygia. Nevertheless by 72 BCE the tide of war had been reversed and Mithradates VI's position in Bithynia became untenable. Thus taking any wealth that remained, the Pontic Basileus and his army evacuated by sea. With the major powers' attention elsewhere, Bithynia became something of a political limbo with the poleis being left to themselves. Orsobaris, the youngest daughter of Mithradates VI, married Lykomedes and started to mint coins in Prousa. Even in 67 BCE when the Consvl Manivs Acilivs Glabrio was given the new Provincia of Bithynia et Pontus, he made light work of taking control of Bithynia. Still the following year Bithynian levies were sent to Gnaevs Pompeivs for his offensive against Mithradates VI. But only in 64 BCE did Gnaevs Pompeivs settle affairs to form a single administrative unit of Bithynia and Pontos. Now Bithynia started to recover economically and its population was generally favourable to Caivs Ivlivs Caesar, likely thanks to his stay and operations. In 47 BCE as Dictator he granted the priesthood of Komana to Lykomedes, while later in 29 BCE Nikaia was allowed to establish a precinct to Roma and to Divvs Ivlivs (the divine Julius). Nikomedeia subsequently, engaged in a rivalry for honours between poleis, built a temple to Avgvstvs.
Strategy
Bithynia is a province rich in many resources, with an enviable geographical position, which protects its settlements and is able to control Pontic commerce. Any ruler would be wise keeping it secured, or even establishing his seat of power in it.
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