Province: Lydia
Traveller's Log
Stepping off his ship, the traveller is welcomed to Smyrna. Once rased by the Lydoi, it was rebuilt by Antigonos Monophthalmos and Lysimachos. This polis is now, some say, the most beautiful of all: paved streets arrayed in straight lines, porticoes with lower and upper stories, a library and the Homereion. The latter is a shrine dedicated to the poet, for the citizens of Smyrna lay claim to Homeros and indeed called their bronze currency after him. This port has always been object of contention, because it stands at the end of trade routes to the Far East. Therefore the Seleukid basileis have detached military garrisons to the Smyrnean Akropolis. To the North lays the thundering Mount Sipylos, rugged by its violent convulsions of the earth. At the foot of this mountain stands Magnesia, a town garrisoned by the Arche Seleukeia. It secures important metal deposits and overlooks the upper Hermos Valley, also known as the Katakekaumene (the burnt country). This because the rocky country is black, as though from conflagration and without trees, except the vine of quality inferior to none. Further to the East lays Mount Tmolos, marking the Lydian border, its waters used to be a great source of gold dust. But Lydia still enjoys much wealth, due to marble quarries, harnessed by Sardis. This most ancient city stands in a fertile plain and has always been a royal or Satrapal residence. In its vicinity stands Lake Gygaia and the Lydian Nekropolis, with its tumuli once towered by giant phalluses. To the South-East, past the Maiandros River, there are hot springs and a Ploutonion (sanctuary to the god of the Underworld). Here the air is full of a dense and misty vapour, harmful to living beings. For through the openings lays the Realm of the dead. Beyond stands Mount Messogis, which marks the end of Lydia.
Geography
Lydia is made up of three valleys, each having its proper river and separated by mountainous ridges. That of the Gediz River (ancient Hermos) is the most extensive, rich and populous. It encompasses the northern portion of Lydia, stretching from Mount Sipylos to Mount Tmolos. A great number of large tumuli is scattered over the plain of Sardis, dating to the Early Iron Age. In the vicinity there is also Lake Marmara (ancient Gygaia), which Herodotos names after the founder of the Kingdom of Lydia. In the middle there is the Kaystros Basin, very contracted it eventually opens to Ephesos. In fact here ran the ancient road to Sardis. The last valley is that of the Büyük Menderes River (ancient Maiandros). Second only to the fertility of the "burnt country", but possessing woodlands, it became the productive centre for the region. Gaivs Plinivs Secvndvs (Pliny the Elder) reports peculiar islands, named Calaminae, which were driven about by the wind or could be pushed by poles. Lydia possesses a Mediterranean climate, with mild winters, but rainfall is quite heavy and leads to serious spring flooding. Lake Gygaia, according to Strabon, was dug to contain such floods and might have been used as a reservoir. Wells and channels for water were definitely part of the landscape. Lydian aristocracy developed royal hunting-grounds, both in enclosed and open spaces, that allowed a blending of customs with the advent of Persian suzerainty. Mount Bozdağ (ancient Tmolos) was roamed by leopards, hyenas, boars, deers and wild goats. The mountain's Sart River (ancient Paktolos), according to Theophrastos, was the only place where touchstone could be found. This basanite, known as Lydian stone, helped measure the purity of precious metals. Lydia was also home to majestic plane trees, so large and beautiful that Khšayaršā of Pârsa (Xerxes I) adorned one with golden bracelets and chains. The origins of Lydia are a much debated subject. It has been connected to Maionia, the Greek rendering of an unknown toponym or ethnonym. When the Mermnad dynasty rose to power in the 7th century BCE, the name Lydia was adopted. What was its meaning it is not known. However this event could represent the resurgence of a social stratum, reflected in the reconstruction (by the Lydian sound law y > d) *lūda- < *luwida- < *luwiya-. Luwiya was a broad ethno-geographical designation, attested in Hittite laws, for western Anatolia. Overall Lydia was one of the richest regions, allowing high standards of living, but quite an unstable land. Archaeology has revealed, for example, that Smyrna suffered numerous earthquakes. During the 3rd century BCE several seisms were recorded in the vicinity of Mikra Asia. Gaivs Plinivs Secvndvs speaks even of 57 such shocks, solely in 217 BCE. While in 17 CE what was called "the greatest earthquake which has occurred in our memory" destroyed twelve cities, most of them in Lydia.
The People, Society and Government
The Lydoi (Lydians) have always been associated to prosperity. It is clear that they were a very industrious and creative people. They are thought to have established inns for travellers and coining money. The Lydoi developed such an advanced society, in the Early Iron Age, to heavily influence the Hellenes. Semonides speaks of Lydian unguents made from hazelwort. Psappho remarks how Lydian headbands look splendid on women. Hipponax particularly appreciated a Lydian perfume "as used by Kroisos (Croesus)". Lydian banquests were musically awestrucking and Asiatic Hellenes hastily copied their instruments. However these feasts were also characterized by copious debauchery and so the idea of oriental decadence took hold of Greek imagination. Lydoi were also highly valued manufacturers, especially of dyed textiles, and master traders. Herodotos mentions a certain Pythios, who owned important mines in Lydia, said to be "the richest man besides the king [of Persia]". While Kambūĵiya of Pârsa (Cambyses II) summoned workers especially from Lydia, denoting specialized craftsmen. Lydian influence extended over religion aswell: Pausanias went as far as saying that "Hellas probably did [learn religion] from Lydia. Artemis, Dionysos and Kybele are just some examples of adopted deities. The latter, called Kuvava by the Lydoi, was considered the Mother of the Gods and the Lydian ruler was her lover. Their sexual communion, for the Lydoi, assured the well-being of humanity. It is in this context of sacred sexuality, that Lydian women earned their dowry, with what Herodotos perceived as prostitution and thus were free to choose their husbands. The Lydoi also identified themselves by their matronymic, another indication for the social revelance of women. Persian reliefs show men from Lydia with sidelocks, cloaks draped over long dresses and boots. The Lydoi were also famed for their might and prowess. Their armoured chariots were often compared for their splendour and their cavalry, which used lances instead of javelins, was highly thought of. In overall their equipment was described as very similar to Greek arms. Well into the Hellenistic period, Lydian polities were using their own laws and institutions. All they were required to do was to supply manpower and resources to Satrapal authority. However contacts with different cultures shaped a new "Greaco-Persian" synthesis, where local traditions and imported ones existed side by side. This polyethnic society combined aspects into an independent context, which thrived regardless of original influence and in fact did not change or revert with Alexandros of Makedonia (Alexander III)'s arrival. Hellenistic culture would simply offer yet another inspiration for Lydian pluralism.
The Smyrnaioi (Smyrnaeans) belonged culturally to the Early Bronze Age sphere of communities that founded cities on the Aegean Coast of Asia Minor, as far north as Ilion. They suffered incursions by Indo-Europeans towards the late 3rd millennium BCE. This brought the adoption of scribal traditions, influenced by Luwian communities. Polities and trade developed as a result, but new migrations around 1200 BCE disrupted this network. The general chaos allowed Aioleis, two centuries later, to assume control of the locals and the coast. Thus Archaic Smyrna came to be, extracting agricultural surplus from inland communities. But the end of the 9th century BCE saw the arrival of a second wave of Greek invaders: the Iones. Their colonies formed links and, near Ephesos, established the Panionion, a sanctuary to Poseidon and centre of a political league. It could be said that the Smyrnaioi helped conceptualize the idea of polis. By the 7th century BCE Smyrna enjoyed a unique prosperity among Greek cities: a large temple to Athena, private terracotta baths, exportation of local products in an international trade from the Pontos Euxeinos (Black Sea) to Kypros. Conflicts inevitably arose with the interior, Alyattes of Lydia destroyed Smyrna's walls and expelled its population to the countryside. These villagers endured and eventually a small port was re-established, under Persian suzerainty. Finally in the Hellenistic period city-state life and institutions were brought back. The Smyrnaioi stood proud of their past, participating in intense rivalry at sacred games for the top rank as "the first polis of Asia".
History
In the late 3rd millennium BCE north-western Anatolia endured much upheaval and it is possible that among the Indo-European speakers, who caused it, were the Lydoi's ancestors. These groups eventually settled the whole of western Anatolia, from the Hellespont to the Mediterranean Sea, forming regional powers in loose contact with eachother. From an Hittite point of view, this area was referred to as Luwiya, because at the Hittite border lived Luwian speakers. In the late 17th century BCE as direct activity by the rulers of Hattuša went as far as the Aigaion Pelagos (Aegean Sea), they started referring to the area as Arzawiya. The latter was a confederation of tribes, which put under pressure recognized an high king figure reigning in Apaša (Ephesos), around the 15th century BCE. This was a reaction to Hittite influence, setting up vassals. One of these was Madduwatta, expelled from Lukka (Lykia), became the ruler of the Hermos Valley. Madduwatta then used Hittite troops to become King of Arzawa and his homeland connections to gain tributaries. When instructed by Tudhaliya I, his putative Hittite overlord, to quell a revolt Madduwatta instead used the occasion to expand further. This caused open warfare between Arzawa and Hattuša. Madduwatta enjoyed successes and raided along southern Anatolia, even in Kypros with Mycenaean or Minoan assistance. In the early 14th century BCE so great and surprising was this Arzawan ascendancy, that Pharaoh Amāna-Hātpa (Amenhotep III) asked to marry the daughter of the new King Tarhundaradu. Much to the latter's disbelief, who went as far as asking a written confirmation of such request. The rest of the century, however, saw a reversal and Hittite suzerainty once again in place. The kingdom of Arzawa ceased to exist, the new Hittite policy called for its splitting into smaller polities. One of these was called by Homeros Maionia, probably representing Madduwatta's dynasty, which previously lost Arzawa leadership and sided with Hittite resurgeance.
The 13th century BCE was characterized by few anti-Hittite revolts and, at its end, the migration of the Muški. Some of their leaders now held sway over the land between the Hermos and Maiandros Rivers. By the late 9th century BCE the kings were clearly Mysian and loosely affiliated with Phrygia. Around 695 BCE Kimmerioi (Cimmerians) raiders destroyed Phrygian central authority and it would seem the Mysoi (Mysians) were not capable of mounting a proper resistance. Around 685 BCE revolution started in Sardis, led by a general called Gyges. Who enjoyed Mysian and Karian ties, deposed Myrsilos and established a new kingdom: Lydia. What is clear is that for the first time ethnic Lydoi came to power, for their language was used at court. Gyges was very successful and expanded his power as far as the Hellespontos. Probably siding with Assyrian forces, Gyges managed to push back the Kimmerioi. Now secure of his position, the Lydian king promoted himself as the Phrygian successor: expanding Sardis into a royal capital, with bricks and tiles modelled after Gordion's. Gyges also adopted the Phrygian burial tumuli and sent lavish gifts to Delphoi, ensuring the benevolence of the gods. This because he now set his eyes on the coastal Hellenic poleis. During the 650s BCE Gyges even helped Psamtik of Aigyptos (Psammetichus I) to break off Assyrian suzerainty. This left him alone to deal with the nomad raiders and around 644 BCE he died in battle. His son Ardyes resisted in Sardis' Akropolis, which the Kimmerioi could not take and left. Lydia quickly recovered and resumed campaigns against the Iones. By the end of the 7th century BCE, the new Lydian king Alyattes had allied himself with Skuda (Scythian) tribes and expelled for good the Kimmerioi. This eastward expansion caused friction with the Mādai (Medes) and eventually borders were agreed at the Halys River in 585 BCE. Lydian hegemony in western Mikra Asia was assured, exacting tribute from Hellenic poleis and making alliances with the islands of the Aigaion. Only Lykia and Kilikia resisted Kroisos around 560 BCE. In 549 BCE Kūruš of Pârsa (Cyrus the Great) had overthrown the Mādai, alarming Kroisos of Lydia, who formed a coalition with Sparta, Babylonia and Aigyptos against the Persian growing power. This pre-emptive attack proved to be disastrous: Lydian cavalry, the strongest contingent, could not prevail (scared off by dromedaries) and Kūruš of Pârsa unexpectedly descended in the middle of winter on Sardis. Thus in 546 BCE with its capital sacked, Lydian independence ended.
Marching away on another campaign, the Persian Khšāyathiya Khšāyathiyānām (King of Kings) ordered the Lydian Paktyes to collect tribute and send it to him. However this official used the resources to rally troops and besiege Sardis, which had become the seat of a Persian governor. Hastily generals were sent back to deal with this revolt and after four years, spent dealing with every community or polis, Mikra Asia was pacified. The lesson was learnt and high offices were now entrusted solely to Persian men. But the Lydian administrative model was left in place for the new governorship, named after the Persian rendering of its capital Sparda (Sardis). If anything Lydia was enriched even more by the flow of people from other lands, producing a cosmopolitan society. By 522 BCE the governor of Sardis had consolidated Lydia as his possession so much, that he started to act independently. With dynastic turbulence in the Persian capital, this governor decided to expand his power at the expenses of other Persian dependencies. However Dārayavahuš of Pârsa (Darius I)'s coup had already succeeded and the governor of Sardis was eliminated. Afterwards the Persian Empire was consolidated formalizing the position of Khšaçapāvan (Satrap). Works started to connect and rebuild ways, eventually becoming the famous Royal Road. Lydian craftsmen were employed at this time even near Persepolis. In 508 BCE Athenai, which had just introduced an isonomic (equality before the law) constitution, sent envoys to Sparda. Artafarnâ, the Khšaçapāvan, demanded earth and water in exchange for his cooperation. The Athenian envoys obliged, oblivious to the meaning of these symbolic gifts and the Athenian assembly disavowed their actions. But three years later Artafarnâ ordered Athenai to reinstate the Tyrannos Hippias, who had been expelled by the Athenaioi in 510 BCE. This was obviously rejected, but relations between Athenai and Pârsa deteriorated deeply. Thus in 499 BCE the Ionian Revolt caused some instability in Lydia, with Athenian assistance, but was eventually suppressed. Sardis must have become an adequate fortification by 490 BCE, as it allowed safe mustering and dwelling for troops and imperial entourage through the winter months. In the decades following Khšayaršā's invasion of Hellas, Sparda actively engaged in diplomatic and political pressure over the Asiatic poleis that allied with Athenai. However these ties allowed satraps to rely on Hellenic mercenaries, during their regional power struggles to expand their administrative dominions. In 420 BCE Sparda's Khšaçapāvan rebelled, but was betrayed by his mercenary commander and in 415 BCE Čiçafarnah (Tissaphernes) took over both satrapy and generalship of Mikra Asia. An alliance with Agis of Sparta was reached to help re-establish Persian suzerainty over Asiatic Hellenes, in exchange of subsidies and assistance against Athenai. However Čiçafarnah, who for the first time struck silver coins in his own image, tried to detriment as much as possible the Peloponnesians and Dārayavahuš of Pârsa (Darius II) replaced him. A more resolute conduct was to be followed by Kūruš (Cyrus the Younger) in 407 BCE. But the ascension of his hated brother, convinced him to take over the Persian throne and assembled all his forces at Sardis. Čiçafarnah lost no time and raced to inform the Khšāyathiya Khšāyathiyānām, with the revolt over he was rewarded all his former possessions. Reinstated he set to put into shape his satrapy, whoever refused to pay tribute had his territory ravaged and polis besieged. This time Sparta was appealed to fight against the Khšaçapāvan in 399 BCE. However the Spartan commander Derkylidas preferred to ally himself with Čiçafarnah against the Khšaçapāvan of Phrygia. Two years later he was rebuked by Spartan authorities and marched towards the Maiandros River to fight the reconciled satraps. Both sides did not like what they saw in the open field, superior cavalry for the Persian army and superior infantry for the Greek force. So they simply decided to make a truce on the spot, declaring the Asiatic Hellenes free from Persian and Spartan rule alike. Furious the Spartan Archagetes Agesilaos (Agesilaus II) resolved to embark for Mikra Asia himself. In 395 BCE, after levying a capable mounted contingent at Ephesos, Agesilaos marched straight for Sardis. With the Persian scouts taken care of, an ambush was set and Čiçafarnah's army was soundly beaten. The Persian Khšāyathiya Khšāyathiyānām, who already considered this as essentially the Khšaçapāvan's personal war, sent a substitute. The Queen Mother Parušyātiš also made sure that Čiçafarnah was assassinated, for causing the downfall of her beloved Kūruš. Agesilaos was eventually forced to fall back to Lakonike, for unable to defeat him on the field the satraps resolved in stirring up rebellion. In 386 BCE peace was finally agreed recognizing Persian suzerainty in mainland Anatolia. In 368 BCE the new Khšaçapāvan of Sparda, Vātafradāta (Autophradates) was tasked to put down a rebellion in Kappadokia. Outmanouvered Vātafradāta arranged a truce to preserve his forces, alarmed by widespread revolts in Mikra Asia. Throughout the 360s BCE alone with Mausolos of Karia, faced a larger opposition cutting them off other loyalists. So isolated in 362 BCE they were compelled to side with the rebels. Only two years later Vātafradāta and Mausolos managed to put down the revolts, thanks to disunity and betrayals.
In 334 BCE the new Khšaçapāvan of Sparda was killed at the Grenikos River, his officer Mihran (Mithrenes) was left as commander of the garrison. This man was Yervand of Hayasdan's grandson and soon as Alexandros of Makedonia reached Sardis, opened the gates without a struggle. Thus he was named Satrapes of Armenia and his dynasty would rule that land in the following centuries. As for the Lydoi, they were given the right to follow their traditional customs and permitted to be free. This really was just a confirmation of the status quo and later grateful Lydian reinforcements joined Alexandros at the newly founded Alexandreia Ariana. Antigonos Monophthalmos, highly undermanned, in 332 BCE repelled remnants of Dārayavahuš of Pârsa (Darius III)'s army, who were trying to retake the Aigaion seaboard. Such actions helped Antigonos establish friendly relations with influential locals. In 323 BCE Perdikkas, as guardian of the Argead basileis, ordered the Satrapai of Mikra Asia to support the conquest of Kappadokia. However the guardian had shown desire to gain full royal power and put Kleopatra (Alexandros Megas' sister), whom he was courting, in charge of the administration of Lydia. Thus alienating other Satrapai, causing Monophthalmos to flee in 321 BCE and form a league of rebels. Soon as Antigonos returned western Mikra Asia defected en masse to him, causing Eumenes of Kardia (loyalist Satrapes of Kappadokia and Paphlagonia) to flee from Sardis. However Perdikkas' subsequent defeat was not enough: Monophthalmos, despite having been nominated Strategos of Asia, set off to dispossess former allies of their land in Mikra Asia. At Sardis Antigonos, unable to convince Kleopatra to marry him, decided to put Alexandros Megas' sister in honourable captivity. Eventually he would order her assassination and stage her grandiose funeral. In 306 BCE Antigonos was acclaimed Basileus and he then strove to keep his direct involvement in his cities' affairs to a minimum. This in ancient times was perceived as good government and Monophthalmos even distributed corn from his own royal lands in Lydia. Following the battle of Ipsos (301 BCE) Lysimachos of Thraikia fought against Antigonid remnants in Mikra Asia, to secure his new domain. What he found was a well established and prosperous territory, granting him a substantial annual income. His son Agathokles in 287 BCE successfully protected Lydia from Demetrios Poliorketes of Makedonia (Demetrius I)'s attacks. But intrigues at Lysimachos' court and the subsequent assassination of Agathokles, unleashed political chaos in Mikra Asia. This attracted Seleukos Nikator in 282 BCE to invade and defeat Lysimachos the following year at the plain of Kyros, west of Sardis. The latter's commander of the garrison resolved to open the gates, handing over all the treasures stored in the Lydian capital.
Around 275 BCE Antiochos I, probably near the Hermos River, won a battle against the raiding Galatai. Thus he was honoured as Soter (saviour) by Hellenistic polities. However raids did not end and Achaios, youngest son of Seleukos I Nikator, who owned estates in Lydia, had to ransom captives in 267 BCE. His daughter Laodike would marry the Basileus second son Antiochos (later Antiochos II Theos) and his son Alexandros was named Satrapes of Lydia in 261 BCE, likely with viceregal status. It is around this time that Makedones and other ethnicities were increasingly settled as Katoikai (military settlers) in Lydia. Among the new foundations was Laodikeia, expanding the town in the vicinity of the Ploutonion near the Maiandors River. Achaios' was certainly an influencial family in the Arche Seleukeia. In 246 BCE Antiochos Theos died and Laodike, to safeguard her children's interests, had Berenike (daughter of Ptolemaios II Philadephos) and her son by Antiochos Theos (from a repudiated political marriage) murdered. However Berenike's brother Ptolemaios III had already been asked to help support his nephew's claim and invaded Syria. So in 245 BCE Basileus Seleukos II Pogon nominated his brother Antiochos Hierax as Strategos of Mikra Asia, for he had to take care of the Ptolemaic armies. However, following setbacks in the campaign, Laodike instigated Hierax to revolt and proclaim himself Basileus. She then sought her brother Alexandros' protection at Sardis and recognition of such claims. Thanks to her family soon most of Mikra Asia supported Hierax, but in 237 BCE he was defeated by Attalos I of Pergamon. Whose mother was Laodike's sister and in 223 BCE faced another Achaios (Hierax's cousin), who remained loyal to Seleukos II. Achaios was extremely successful at first, rallying his family troops from Lydia and Mikra Asia, expelling the Pergamese. So much so that two years later he proclaimed himself Basileus at Sardis, which had become a full fledged Hellenistic polis by this time. But his soldiers refused to march into Syria, they were only concerned about their possessions in Mikra Asia and so Achaios could not coordinate his efforts against the new Seleukid Basileus Antiochos III with Ptolemaic forces. This allowed Antiochos to concentrate on other fronts and in 216 BCE finally besieged Achaios at Sardis. However the Akropolis could not be stormed and after two years of blockade thanks only to Kretan treachery, Achaios was captured, his nose, ears and hands cut off and then crucified. In the aftermath Zeuxis, a macedonian general of unquestionable loyalty, was nominated Satrapes of Lydia and Strategos of Mikra Asia. Straight away fiscal exemptions were granted Lydian poleis and administration was centralized in Zeuxis' hands, effectively removing any strong institution or network at a regional level. As another measure Ioudaioi veterans were settled at strategic locations throughout Lydia, ensuring the presence of soldiers loyal to the Basileus Megas. In 197 BCE Sardis was to serve as the headquarters for the campaign against Ptolemaic territories in Anatolia, which were systematically conquered.
Ultimately Pergamon benefited from this consolidation, because in 190 BCE near Magnesia by Mount Sipylos Antiochos was defeated. Two years later the Arche Seleukeia formally lost possession of Mikra Asia west of the Tauros Mountains. Eumenes II of Pergamon took over from where Zeuxis had left off, but introduced a new policy: he transferred the burden of extracting surplus to allied communities of military settlers. This effectively expanded their dependent territories, for the inland had been neglected due to logistics. Now the Hellenistic urban polities exacted much more tribute in kind, which was converted into coins and transferred to the Pergamese treasuries. In 166 BCE Eumenes went even further with this fiscal decentralization, by transferring stretches of royal land to towns affected by Galatian raids. Thus Pergamon instead of enriching single families, strengthened the loyalty of its poleis and soldiers. Attalos II followed his brother policies and brought the urbanization of the Lydian interior to its maximum, founding Philadelpheia. Unfortunately subsequent earthquakes nearly deserted it. Already with the Attalidai and later with the Romani, Lydia ceased being the political centre for Mikra Asia. But the inhabitants were involved in Mithradates VI of Pontos' Wars. Smyrna particularly enjoyed growth during the Roman period, thanks to its harbour. In 23 CE the Smyrnaioi built a temple in honour of Tiberivs and his mother.
Strategy
Lydia has riches to support substantial forces, but its geography does not offer full protection. Still its position in the middle of western Anatolia, makes it the perfect centre to control the neighbouring regions.
Re: Regional Descriptions: Help the EBII Team
Originally Posted by I Am Herenow
donated by ARCHIPPOS for being friendly to new people.
donated by Tellos Athenaios as a welcome to Campus Martius
-Silentium... mandata captate; non vos turbatis; ordinem servate; bando sequute; memo demittat bandum et inimicos seque;
x30 From mikepettytw for showing how to edit in game text.
Quetzalcóatl, The Feathered Serpent.
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