Regional History
Eastern Europe is defined by many similarities in history. Nearly all of these similarities are shared in ethnic conflict and communist control. Without exception, each nation in modern Eastern Europe is of former communist control and all are taking strides, with varying degrees of success, towards greater democratization.
It is fair to note that Eastern Europe can be divided based on one shared allegiance: that of Yugoslavia. Where Poland, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, and Hungary each share their own independent history, the former republics of Yugoslavia all share a fairly common recent past. Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary all have benefited from a lack of ethnic conflict. The national boundaries have existed for some time, and all have homogeneity in ethnicity, religion, and language. This is not the case in the former republics of Yugoslavia, where ethnicity and religion have played a predominant role in shaping the conflicts and challenges of post-communist governance. Perhaps unique from its counterpart former Yugoslav republics, is Slovenia. Slovenia has largely been spared the ethnic and religious conflicts due in part to its homogeneity. Slovenia rapidly separated from Yugoslavia and has been, by far, the most successful of the post-Yugoslav states to implement democracy and economic prosperity.
Poland: Modernly defined by the end of WWII and Communist control thereafter until 1990. The country had several large groups of ethnic minorities prior to WWII but is now essentially homogenous with Poles. Communist rule supported by the Soviet Union dominated the economic and political spectrum following Polish re-assertion of independence after World War II. Communism collapsed in Poland in the 1990’s, and the first free parliamentary elections were held in 1991. Since then, Poland has made steady progress in reforming towards a modern market economy. Poland abandoned the Warsaw Pact in 1991 and was officially accepted into the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1999. Poland acceded into the European Union in 2004, and is required by treaty to eventually accept the Euro as its official currency.
Czech Republic and Slovakia: Prior to the end of WWI, Czech and Slovak lands were part of the Austrian Empire. The Czech Republic existed as the western half of Czechoslovakia from the end of WWI at its creation until 1993. During WWII, portions of Czechoslovakia with large German minorities were obtained by Germany through concessions from France and the UK as well as through German invasion. Around the same time during WWII, Slovakia declared independence and became a client state of Germany. Czechoslovakia was reunited following WWII and most Germans were forced to leave. In 1946, elections were held, but communist elements backed by the Soviet Union quickly gained prominence and took power in 1948. Throughout the 1960s, internal pressure for change and Slovak demands for greater independence resulted in a series of economic and social reforms that angered the Soviet Union. Warsaw Pact forces invaded Czechoslovakia in 1968 and replaced the reformers with new leadership. The 1970s and 1980s saw a period of Soviet conservatism with little active resistance. This period of conservatism ended in 1989 with broad popular demands for reform and the eventual collapse of communism in Czechoslovakia in 1990, when the first free elections were held since those in 1946. In 1991, Czechoslovakia abandoned the Warsaw Pact and immediately thereafter in 1992, Slovaks pressured for autonomy, culminating in the split which formed the current Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Czech Republic and Slovakia both were members of the Central European Free Trade Agreement as a preliminary agreement to formal acceptance into the European Union, which both countries are now part. The Czech Republic joined NATO in 1999 and Slovakia followed in 2004. Both countries are required by treaty to eventually accept the Euro as national currency.
Hungary: At the end of the World War I, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was defeated and Hungary was split into its own nation. During World War II, Hungary sided with Germany until 1944, where it unsuccessfully attempted to switch sides and was consequently occupied by German forces. Following WW II, Hungary was supported by a provisional government of American, British, and Soviet representatives. In 1945, the provisional government was replaced by a national government, which itself was soon undermined by communist elements with Soviet backing. Major industries, banking, and natural resources were nationalized and by 1949, Hungary was under a communist dictatorship with all opposition parties forced to join the Hungarian Worker’s Party. In 1953, Hungary joined the Warsaw Pact. That same year, serious economic difficulties arose from forced nationalization and collectivization. National leadership attempted a brief and unsuccessful attempt at reform which was quickly disrupted by hard-core Soviet-stylized conservatives. However, the desire for reform was not to be underestimated and revolution broke out in 1956. Liberal leadership attempted to reinstate economic and social reforms, and withdrew from the Warsaw Pact. The Soviet Union responded with a massive invasion and subsequent reinstatement of Communist dictatorship. The liberal leadership was executed and roughly 200,000 Hungarians fled the country. In the 1960s, the communist government began to very slowly implement economic and social reform which contributed to 20 years of reasonable political quiet in Hungary. In the mid to late 1980s, reform efforts stepped up in intensity, culminating in a gradual transition to democracy in 1989 and the Soviet Union agreeing to withdraw its forces by 1991. Hungary was admitted to NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004. Hungary is required by treaty to eventually adopt the Euro as its currency.
Slovenia: Following World War I, Slovenia was the very northern republic united under what is now the former Yugoslavia. Yugoslavia fell to Germany and its allies during World War II and succumbed to communism shortly thereafter. During the Yugoslav era of communism, Slovenia thrived under its own liberal policies. Finally, in 1990, Slovenia declared independence from Yugoslavia. As an emerging democracy, the leaders of Slovenia pursued further economic and social liberalization. Slovenia became a member of NATO and the European Union in 2004 and is expected to adopt the Euro as its currency in 2007, making it the first of the eastern European regional EU members to do so. (U.S. Department of State,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3407.htm)
Croatia: Croatia was one of the several countries to unite within Yugoslavia after World War I. Croatia was held under communist Yugoslavia without great incident until after the death of Marshall Tito, when Yugoslavia began to break apart. Croatia declared its independence in 1991, and conflicts between ethnic Serbs and Croats quickly escalated into civil war. A series of cease-fires and corresponding resumptions of hostilities took place until 1995, where Croatia committed itself to a lasting peace with the Dayton Peace Accords. Not long after, Croatia progressed through regional cooperation, democratization, and other various national reconciliation efforts. Currently, the leadership of Croatia has dedicated itself to accession to the EU and NATO. To further these aims of stability and economic prosperity, Croatia is a member of the Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe, a member of CEFTA, and in negotiations for EU membership.
Bosnia and Herzegovina: The relations of the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina deserve a brief explanation prior to World War I, as it directly relates to modern challenges. Ottoman Turks controlled Bosnia from 1463 to 1878, and during this time many Christians converted to Islam. These religious influences play a large part in the conflicts today. Bosnia became a colony of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until the end of World War I, and it was Bosnia where the sparks of World War I were lit with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serb nationalist who supported a southern Slav state. After World War I, Bosnia became part of Yugoslavia which fell to communism after World War II. Slobodan Milosevic’s rise to prominence in 1986 accelerated the break up of Yugoslavia along ethnic lines. Bosnia declared independence in 1992, though opposed by Bosnian Serbs. Serbia and Bosnian Serbs engaged in a violent offensive in an attempt to include eastern Bosnia as a component of a greater ethnically defined Serbia. During this same time, Bosnian Muslims and Croats also sought independence from Bosnia. Just prior to the Dayton Peace accords in 1995, Muslims and Croats agreed to a unified federal government of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Dayton Peace Accords created a two-tiered government comprised of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republica Srpska, both being divided primarily along the ethnic religious lines of Croats & Muslim Bosniaks and Christian Serbs. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a member of the Stability pact for Southeastern Europe and a prospective member for the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA). European Union peacekeeping troops are currently deployed to Bosnia and Herzegovina to prevent renewed hostilities. (U.S. Department of State,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2868.htm)
Serbia and Montenegro: Following World War II, the formation of Yugoslavia saw Serbia as the dominant partner in the alliance of various ethnicities and religions under one banner. A large contributing factor towards the success of this unity was the protection of smaller republics under Serbian leadership. Following World War II, Serbia played the leading role within communist Yugoslavia. During the break up which began in the 1980s, Serbian President Slobodan Milosevic sought to exercise greater control over provinces which previously enjoyed greater autonomy. In 1999, NATO exacted an air campaign over Serbia in response to Slobodan Milosevic violent acts against ethnic Albanians in Kosovo. Milosevic eventually ceased his actions and NATO forces moved in to Kosovo as a peacekeeping and security force. After Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia announced independence for their respective states, Serbia and Montenegro became the successor to the Yugoslav state as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The name was changed in 2003 to Serbia and Montenegro by Constitutional Charter. A provision of this charter allowed for the secession of Montenegro in 2006, which occurred in June of 2006. Both Serbia and Montenegro are members of the Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe and are prospective members for CEFTA. (U.S. Department of State,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5388.htm)
Albania: Albania’s independence was established following World War I after hundreds of years of rule by the Ottoman Empire. Albania was occupied by Axis powers during World War II, and after the war, suffered under the brutal isolated communist regime of Enver Hoxha for several decades. In 1991, after the general fall of communism in Europe and six years after the death of Enver Hoxha, Albanian leaders sought democratization and closer ties to the West. Multi-party democracy and the liberalization of economic policy preceded the elections of the Albanian Democratic Party and more sweeping reforms. Unfortunately, Albania almost immediately suffered under a series of fraudulent investment schemes that resulted in armed revolts that nearly overtook the fragile emerging democratic government. The United Nations sent in a multinational Protection Force to help restore order, and the Democratic Party was replaced by more socialist elements. Since 1997, Albania has progressed slowly and suffered many setbacks due to political infighting. The Democratic Party was returned to power in 2005 on an anti-crime and anti-corruption ticket. Albania is a member of the Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe and is a prospective member for CEFTA. (U.S. Department of State,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3235.htm)
Macedonia: Prior to World War I, the territory of Macedonia fell under Turkish rule in the Ottoman Empire. After World War I, the territory was divided amongst Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Greece, and Bulgaria. After World War II, the territory of modern day Macedonia was established as a republic within communist Yugoslavia. When communism fell throughout Eastern Europe in 1991, Macedonia joined its Yugoslavian contemporaries in declaring independence. Macedonian managed to avoid ethnic conflicts until 2000, when Ethnic Albanians near Kosovo seized land and attacked government forces. The fighting ended in 2001 with the implementation of greater civil rights for ethnic Albanians as broker by international mediators. Macedonia continues to make strides towards greater relations with regional and European partners, though not without challenges. Macedonia is a member of CEFTA, a member of the Stability Pact, and a candidate for the European Union.
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