Well there was little Celtic connection at this stage but I can't account for them individually. There are three different periods really in Irish warfare, so the three different dates will be important.


Throughout the period, the Irish fought in a compact style, usually consisting of three lines of battle. Whether there was independent movement of units, it's unsure, but they were certainly worried about flanks etc. Individual heroes could also be employed in battle, usually seeking out other individuals.Whataver, speed and lightness of foot, as well as exploitation of geographical features was essential to Irish warfare.

612

Cavalry- At this stage independent cavalry was quite uncommon, chariots would have been the order of the day. These would have involved both missile fire from cavalry, or fighting, and would each have both a driver and a fighter, and would have been considered.

Hand-to-Hand- Most of the fighting would have involved spears at this stage. This consisted of two types, the craisech, a heavy spear used mostly for smashing and breaking bones, and the sleágh, much lighter used for piercing.

Swords were in use, but they were uncommon among the lower ranks. They were similar to the roman gladius at this stage and were used for stabbing and piercing, and not swiping or lopping.

Missile warfare, usually conducted at the beginning of battle, was conducted by stone-throwers, and spear and javelin throwers. Even in the 12th century the Irish were renowned for their accuracy and distance as regards spearthrowing, and it is likely this was true in the earlier period as well. They also had spear thongs so they could retrieve their spears on throwing them.

The other form of missile fire at this stage was the stone-thrower. Once again accuracy here was important, but we also have reference to leads balls being used as shot, something that would make them quite overwhelming. Bows were not in use in warfare at this period.

Armour- Would have been sparse at this juncture. Mostly waxed shirts and leather clothes. Perhaps the king may have had a lúirech, but it certainly wouldn't have been widespread. Shields would have included the round shield and the buckler depending on the wealth of the unit.

812

Cavalry- At this stage, though the chariot may have been in use by certain members of the upper classes, the horse as an individual cavalry unit came to a head with the viking invasions. These were the native horse, so they would have been light, and their riders would ride with a cushion, but could mount by leaping on the horse which was essential since stirrups were not in use. They use spears and swords at this stage, as well as being mounted javelinmen. There are references to a marcshlua ríoga, royal cavalry, who may be different from a regular cavalry who may not have been well armoured, and used mainly for raiding etc.

Hand to Hand. Much the same as before in regards to spearmen, the spears however being properly rivetted, and perhaps progression in steel production. The axe during this period, would have come to head, perhaps in imitation of the Norse axe. This would involve both the handaxe, and the sáfach or pole-arm, which indeed could be a response to the advance in cavalry.

Swords also improved in imitation of the Norse, and became much larger, but also no longer limited to stabbing or piercing but lopping and swiping as well.

Missiles were improved slightly. Spears were rivetted now, but they were also counterweighted for increased accuracy. Stone-throwers were still in use. Bows, also in imitation of the Norse, were also on the rise, though anomylous and far from widespread.

The Irish also began using the tight shield wall, or sceallbholg at this stage, in imitation of the Norse, so a strong charge became part of Irish warfare. Caltrops were also used, as well as field fortifications.

Armour- Body armour increased among noble troops, but still not respected as much as it should. Helmets occur among nobles, and both curved (cromsgiath) and iron-embossed shields (cabhradh) become very common the former among the nobility. The lúirech or scaball, (may involve chainmail but definitely armour, the latter covering the shoulders and coming from the latin scapula, the former from lorica. But once again noble soldiers, or the more professional fighters, would have used such. There is also the muince, perhaps a mail-hood, which was in common use and initially protected only the neck but later covered the complete head.

????? period

Cavalry. Chariots have now disappeared, and the cavalry become more and more an excepted part of the battlefield. Come in three varieties, the king's household, who would have been armoured, carry swords, overarm lances, wear helmets, and may have even carried bows(as they did with great accuracy and distance in later centuries) and medium horses (now being imported from france and scotland), used in battle and for raiding, and could be and frequently did, dismount. Then no doubt, would be their vassals bodyguards, who were perhaps not as armoured or as heavy as that of the provincial kings, but could also dismount and had similar weapons. Then on a much lower level would have been light soldiers, unarmoured for scouting and raiding duties (similar to later horseboys).

Fighting- Much the same, better quality weapons no doubt, and swords and axes were becoming increasingly cheaper and more common.

Missiles= Improved darting and spear qualities. Warbows now being considered an important weapon, may have been reflected in unit makeup. In later centuries, it was the ceithearn, who carried bows, (and later on muskets) so perhaps this was the case at this stage too.

Armour- became much cheaper and more widespread, never quite reaching the lower ranks though. Crested helmets also become popular among leaders.

With the increase in wealth, mercenary soldiers, and not levy troops, as well as something similar to a standing army, become more common. These allow for much greater quality in equipment and weaponry among many soldiers.